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I— 


Methods  of  Teaching 


IN 


COUNTRY     SCHOOLS 


BY 


G.  DALLAS  L I \ I) , 


DANVILLE,    "INDIANA  >, 

THE   "NORMAL  TEACHER"    PUBLISHING    HOUSE 
J.   j:.  BHERRILLj   proprietor. 

Chas    L.  Wolfe,  Pkintk*. 

1880. 


<  I  t        I 


• .  ■  •    • 


•    •         '       .  . 


•■••       •••  *  • 


L  B 151 


Li 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S79,  by 

J.  E.  SHERRILL, 
In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 

ALL  RIGHTS    RESERVED. 


'■  ■ 


DEDICATION. 


To  titf.  teachers  of  the  country  schools  of  the  U.  S.,  those  who 
stand  nominally  on  the  lowest  round  of  the  Educational  ladder,  yet 
who  possess  the  power  to  wield  the  greatest  influence  on  the  civili- 
zation and  culture  of  our  people,  this  volume  is  respectfully  dedi 
cated,  <3> 


Ml 


PREFACE. 


Tins  book  was  written  for  country  teachers,  by  a  country  teacher 
and  though  doubtless  full  of  imperfections,  it  is  hoped  by  the  author 
that  many  things  which  he  has  learned  in  the  school  of  experience, 
that  dearest  of  teachers,  the  reader  may  learn  by  a  careful  perusal  of 
its  contents 

Captious  critics  may  find  much  to  worry  over,  but  the  writer  can 
,t--urc  them  that  they  will  not  find  anything  which  he  has  not  worried 
0\  er  before  them. 

A  strictly  logical  arrangement  of  the  subject  has  not  been  attempted. 
It  was  thought  that  a  familiar  conversational  style  was  better  adapted 
to  the  purpose  in  hand. 

It  will  be  observed  that  frequent  references  arc  made  from  one  part 
of  the  book  to  another.  Thi^  was  done  to  avoid  repetition,  and  it  i& 
hoped  the  teachers  will  make  uec  of  them. 

( '•  ntral  Normal  College,  Damille,  hid. 

(5) 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


SEC. 

I. 

SEC. 

2. 

SEC. 

3- 

SEC. 

4- 

SEC. 

5-- 

SE(  • 

6, 

SEC  • 

7- 

SE<  . 

8. 

SEC. 

9-" 

SBi  • 

i. 

SEC. 

> 

SEC. 

3- 

SEC. 

\- 

SE<  . 

i. 

SEC. 

2, 

3- 

PART  I.— SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 

CHAPTER    I. — THE    TEACHER. 

-Moral  Qualifications  9 

.Mental  Qualifications           -  10 

-Physical  Qualifications  -        -        -  -       14 

-Literary  and  Scientific  Qualifications  '  18 

Spirit  of  the  Teacher     -        -        -  -      23 

-Personal  I  [abits          -  25 

-In  Relation  to  Patrons            -         -  -7 

In  Relation  to  Society         -  31 

-In  Relation  to  tlie  Profession           -  -       3] 

CHAPTER    II. — THE    SCHOOL. 

-Preliminary  Work          -        -        -  -      ,;} 

-Organizing         -  37 
-Conducting  Recitations          - 

-Government       -----  j  | 

CII  M'Tl.U    III.     -THE    SCHOOL-HOUSE. 

School  Architecture  55 

hool  Apparatus        -  62 
-Ventilation      ------       64 

(7) 


Vlll 

PART  IL— METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

chap.  i. — Reading       ------  68 

chap.  ii. — Spelling  and  Defining      -  88 

chap.  in. — Arithmetic          -----  99 

chap.  iv. — Geography     -         -         -         -         -  113 

chap.  v. — Grammar  -         -         -         -         -127 

chap.  vi. — History           -----  142 

chap.  vii. — Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene   -  149 
chap.  viii. — Algebra  and  the  Higher  Mathematics  155 

chap.  ix. — Natural  Sciences        -        -        -        -  159 

chap.  x. — Morals  and  Manners        -         -         -  169 

chap.  xi. — Model  Recitations      -        -        -        -  183 

chap.  xii. — Miscellaneous        -        -        -        -  199 

chap.  xiii. — Hints  and  Helps  for  the  Teacher     -  216 


t      I       • 


PART  [-SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE     TEACHER. 

I.     MORAL     QUALIFICATIONS. 

A i.i.  men,  even  the  most  vicious,  will  admit  that  he  who 
i-  immoral  should  not  be  placed  in  the  position  of  teach- 
er of  youth,  Popular  opinion  says  teachers  should  have 
a  good  moral  character,  and  all  certificates  require  it, 
but  how  often,  alas,  is  there  a  failure  in  carrying  out 
this  provision  in  practice.  A  man  may  be  a  very  im- 
moral man  and  vet  find  no  trouble  in  getting  some  one 
or  more  persons  to  certify  to  his  moral  character.  The 
law  can  not  reach  this  matter  except  in  cases  of  out- 
breaking immorality.  It  rests,  then,  with  the  teacher 
himself  and  with  his  conscience.     Ask  yourself,  young 

man.  if  you  are  a  tit  person  to  enter   that  saereii  temple. 

Tans.'  .md  purify  yourself  on  the  threshhold.     Remem- 
ber that  you   carry   about  you  a   moral   or  immoral  at- 
jphere  according  to  the  condition  of  the  soul  within. 

and  that  the  innocent  youth  must  imbibe  that  atmos- 
phere be  it  healthful  or  lOUS.  It  is  impossible  for 
any  one  to  be  a  successful  hypocrite,     lie  may  be  mor- 


19  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

ally  rotten  at  heart  and  attempt  to  make  an  outward 
show  of  morality  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  and  hold- 
ing his  position  as  teacher,  but  youth  are  not  so  easily 
deceived  and  moral  instruction  will  have  but  little  weight 
coming  from  such  a  man.  The  inward  character  of  a 
man  will  crop  out  in  spite  of  himself.  In  his  teaching, 
in  his  government,  in  his  conversation,  in  the  family,  or 
on  the  play  ground,  the  character  of  the  teacher  will 
exhibit  itself  unconsciously  to  him  but  plainly  to  others. 
Says  Dr.  Holland,  "  The  mind  that  has  become  a  treas- 
ure house  of  truth  and  beauty  speaks  a  world  into 
existence  with  every  utterance.  *  *  *  We  give 
what  we  have  received — that  which  is  in  us  will  out  of 
us.  Expression  is  the  necessity  of  possession."  If  the 
teacher's  heart  is  a  "treasure  house  of  truth  and  beauty" 
it  will  overflow,  exerting  an  ennobling  influence  on  all 
who  may  come  near  it.  On  the  other  hand  if  it  be  a 
"  whitened  sepulcher,  filled  with  dead  men's  bones  and 
all  uncleanness,"  it  will  pollute  all  who  have  to  deal  with 
it. 

The  teacher  must  be  not  only  a  moral  but  a  religious 
man,  not  of  that  kind  who  love  to  "  display  to  congrega- 
tions wide,  devotions,  every  grace  except  the  heart," 
but  one  who  loves  God  and  his  fellow  man  and  obeys 
the  golden  rule,  not  from  policy  but  as  the  deep  seated 
conviction  of  his  soul. 

II.    MENTAL    QUALIFICATIONS. 

The  teacher  may  be  a  truly  moral  and  religious  man 
and  yet  be  entirely  incompetent.  He  must  have  certain 
mental  qualifications.  It  is  not  my  purpose  here  to  enter 
into  a  lengthy  discussion  of  the  mental  faculties  of  man, 


in    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  11 

but  simply  to  hint  at  a  few  things  by  which  the  teacher 
may  measure  himself. 

i.  He  should  haze  a  cheerful  and  hopeful  disposition. 
The  school-room  is  no  place  for  a  gloomy,  sour,  de- 
spondent nature.  Children  and  youth  are  naturally 
buoyant  and  hopeful,  but  their  impressible  natures  ma\ 
be  easily  warped  by  constant  contact  with  a  morose  dis- 
position. 

2.  lie  should  be  kind  and  benevolent.  No  human 
heart  is  proof  against  the  power  of  kindness.  Even 
brute  nature  may  be  greatly  impressed  by  it.  I  need 
not  enlarge  upon  this  point,  although  it  would  be  easy 
to  multiply  words.  The  reader  can  see  for  himself  the 
necessity  of  this  faculty  in  a  teacher. 

}.  I  le  should  he  open,  frank  and  unsuspicious.  These 
are  noble  qualities,  but  I  would  not  be  misunderstood 
here.  I  do  not  mean  that  a  teacher  should  be  so  unsus- 
picious that  he  will  consider  all  children  as  born  angels 
who  can  do  no  harm.  Children  sometimes  need  watch- 
ing, but  the  teacher  who  acts  as  a  detective  or  spy  and 
constantly  exhibits  that  disposition  should  have  no  place 
in  the  school-room.  He  should  ever  remember  that 
there  is  a  spark  of  honor  in  ever}  breast  and  that  senti- 
ment should  be  appealed  to  and  trusted  in  if  he  would 
attain  control  over  vicious  dispositions.  lie  should 
always  be  ready  to  confess  himself  in  the  wrong  when 

he    sees  he  has  made  a  mistake. 

p  //•  hould  have  a  love  of  the  work.  This  implies 
a  love  for  children.  He  who  has  not  the  faculty  called 
by  Phrenologists  Philoprogenitiveness  well  developed, 
should  not  choose  the  profession  of  teacher.     lb-  must 

have  a  Love  lor  tin-  profession  or  he  can  not  take  a  deep 


12  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

interest  in  it.  He  can  have  little  control  of  children 
unless  he  can  sympathize  with  them  and  he  can  not 
sympathize  with  them  unless  he  loves  them.  He  should 
have  this  love  sufficiently  strong  to  be  able  to  encourage 
their  efforts  and  bear  with  their  shortcomings,  to  feel  for 
their  sorrows,  to  lift  up  the  despondent,  to  bring  out  the 
timid,  to  hold  in  check  the  bold,  to  conquer  the  obstinate 
and  in  general  to  throw  his  whole  soul  into  the  work  of. 
improving  their  physical,  mental  and  moral  condition. 

5.  He  should  be  conscientious.  This  faculty  leads  a 
man  to  do  right  because  it  is  right;  to  shun  the  wrong 
because  it  is  wrong.  He  must  feel  that  it  is  his  dutv  to 
teach  well  and  feel  conscience-smitten  if  he  leaves  undone 
what  he  might  have  done  for  the  benefit  of  those  under 
his  care.  Without  this  feeling  no  one  can  become  a 
good  teacher.  All  men  have  this  faculty  in  some  degree, 
but  those  in  whom  it  is  feebly  developed  are  the  rogues, 
scoundrels  and  hypocrites  of  society.  A  lack  of  this 
feeling  has  filled  our  jails  and  penitentiaries  and  furnished 
subjects  for  the  gallows.  This  faculty  should  be  culti- 
vated in  children  and  youth,  and  the  teacher  who  has 
it  largely  developed  himself  is  best  calculated  to  teach  it. 

6.  He  should  be  a  lover  of  order.  In  no  place  is  order 
and  svstem  needed  more  than  in  the  school-room.  If 
the  teacher  be  not  naturally  systematic,  he  should  use 
his  utmost  endeavors  to  improve  himself  in  this  respect. 
Let  him  make  order  and  system  a  study.  Let  him 
practice  it  everywhere,  even  to  the  minor  details  of  daily 
duties.  He  should  practice  keeping  the  articles  in  his 
room  in  order,  the  books  on  the  shelves,  &c,  until  it 
becomes  a  kind  of  second  nature  to  him. 

7.  He  should  be  firm  and  self-reliant.     This  quality 


IN     COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  13 

may  easily  be  carried  to  extremes.  Many  men  have  the 
faculty  of  firmness  so  well  developed  that  it  becomes 
i  tt  re  obstinacy  and  Bullishness, or  they  are  so  impressed 

with  the  importance  of  being  sole  master  of  whatever 
is  in  their  charge  that  they  become  tyrants  and  despots. 
The  true  teacher  must  avoid  either  extreme.  If  he  is 
kind  and  conscientious  and  loves  children  he  can  be  firm 
without  being  despotic,  self-reliant  without  being  bigoted 
and  can  govern  with  justice  and  equity. 

S.  He  should  have  a  social  and  agreeable  nature.  A 
teacher  should  have  none  of  the  disposition  of  a  hermit. 
He  may  succeed  in  some  other  occupations  and  not  be 
of  a  social  nature,  but  in  this  he  can  not.  The  teacher's 
business  is  to  improve  society  and  therefore  he  must 
make  himself  one  of  the  mass.  He  must  have  a  kind 
word  for  every  one,  must  have  the  power  of  adapting 
himself  to  different  classes  of  people  and  making  his 
company  agreeable  to  them,  but  at  the  same  time 
maintaining  his  self-respect  and  moral  dignity.  (See 
pp.  2c,  and  31). 

To  be  a  good  teacher  a  man  should  have  a  good 
brain,  all  the  mental  faculties  well  developed.  A  man 
may  be  able  to  make  a  good  wagon  wheel  or  pair  of  boots 
and  be  greatly  lacking  in  many  <»f  tin-  mental  faculties. 
lie    may    In-    a   good   penman,   musician,  or  artist,   anil 

lack  conscientiousness  anil    benevolence.      But  a  man 

can  not  be  a  successful  teacher   who   is   greatly   lacking 

in  any  faculty,  that  is  he  can  n^t  teach  everything.  The 
teacher  in  our  public  schools  is  required  to  teach  some- 
thing of  almost  everything,  either  directly  or  indirectly. 
Such  also  is  the  intimate  inter-relation  of  the  branches 
of  knowledge  that  to  be  proficient  in  anv  one  branch  a 


14  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

man  must  have  some  acquaintance  with  all  other 
branches.  A  man  can  not  teach  that  which  he  does 
not  know.  A  teacher  can  not  have  too  much  know- 
ledge. He  can  not  have  a  knowledge  of  a  branch 
unless  he  has  a  good  development  of  the  mental  faculty 
which  is  necessary  to  have,  in  order  to  acquire  that 
branch.     (See  p.  18). 

Do  not  think,  teacher,  that  it  is  absolutelv  necessary 
to  be  born  with  a  full  development  of  these  mental  quali- 
fications. Almost  amr  person  of  ordinary  mental  calibre 
can  acquire  these  qualifications  I  ,'  persistent  studv  and 
practice.  If,  then,  you  are  lacking  in  some  of  the  men- 
tal faculties  necessary  to  make  a  good  teacher  let  it  be 
your  constant  study  to  improve  yOurself.  Let  the  motto, 
"know  thyself,"  be  ever  present  before  your  mind, 
and  apply  your  energies  to  the  improvement  of  those 
parts  which  are  lacking.  You  may  be  lacking  in  one 
faculty  and  yet  be  able  to  make  up  for  it  in  part  bv  a 
full  development  of  some  other  faculty,  but  nothing  is 
of  so  great  advantage  as  a  brain  well  balanced.  If  vou 
are  greatly  lacking  in  any  of  these-parts  you  would  better 
seek  some  other  emplovment  as  the  experience  neces- 
sary to  improve  vou  will  be  at  the  expense  of  Your 
pupils  and  patrons  and  a  constant  source  of  vexation  to 
yourself.  If  every  teacher  would  look  in  upon  himself 
and  when  he  finds  he  is  not  fitted  for  the  place  he  occu- 
pies, would  step  down  and  out  and  enter  some  other 
profession  or  adopt  some  other  emplovment,  the  condi- 
tion of  our  schools  would  soon  improve  rapidly. 

III.     PHYSICAL    QUALIFICATIONS. 

The  teacher  must  have  good  health.      The  school- 


IN   COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  1  ~> 

room  is  not  a  proper  place  for  an  invalid.  It  is  often  the 
ease,  that  persons  who  are  from  some  physical  defect 
unfitted  for  occupations  requiring  manual  labor,  enter 
the  teaching  profession,  hoping  thus  to  make  a  living. 
Again,  many  enter  the  profession  with  good  constitu- 
tions to  retire  from  it  in  a  few  years  with  impaired 
health  and  seek  some  other  occupation  from  which  they 
hope  to  regain  their  lost  vitality.  The  former  should 
not  and  the  latter  need  not  be  the  case.  No  man  who 
from  physical  reasons  is  unable  to  work  should  make 
this  an  excuse  for  teaching  school.  If  he  has  the  proper 
mental  qualifications  ami  good  health,  though  he  may 
lack  a  limb  or  the  use  of  one.  vet  he  is  capable  of  teach- 
ing school.  If  the  teacher  understands  and  practices 
the  laws  of  health,  he  may  live  as  long  and  enjoy  as 
good  health  as  in  any  Other  occupation.  There  is  not 
Space  in  a  treatise  of  this  kind  for  a  full  discussion  of 
the  question  of  hygiene.      A    few   hints  and  suggestions. 

however,  will  not  be  out  of  place. 

A  man  may  follow  some  out-door  occupation,  being 
possessed  of  a  robust  constitution,  and  live  and  enjoy 
excellent  health  for  vears  and  never  take  a  thought 
about  the  matter.     Exercise  of  the  body,  pure  air  and 

sunshine  will  go  far  towards  making  up  for  excesses  in 
eating  and  drinking,  or  for  want  of  sleep.      But  a  teacher 

is  for  a  great  part  of  the  time  deprived  o\  the  opportu- 
nity for  bodily  exercise,  often  of  pure  air  and  sunshine. 
IK-   should  then  whenever  opportunity  presents   take 

daily  exercise  in  the  open  air  and  sunshine.  Most  coun- 
try teachers  board  or  live  at  some  distance  from  the 

School-house  and  the  necessary  walk  to  and  from  school 

affords  an  opportunity  to  enjoy  these  three  essentials  of 


16  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

health.  Some  persons  need  more  exercise  than  others. 
Those  of  a  rough  and  sturdy  build  need  bodily  exercise 
more  than  those  of  more  delicate  frame.  Persons  with 
delicate  frames  often  overdo  this  matter  of  exercise  and 
the  very  thing  which,  if  properly  conducted  would  be 
of  great  benefit,  becomes  an  injury  to  them.  Exercise 
to  be  beneficial  should  stop  short  of  moderate  fatigue. 

The  teacher  should  not  be  above  manual  labor.  An 
hour  each  day  spent  in  chopping  or  sawing  wood  would, 
in  many  cases,  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  teacher's  health 
and  would  not  detract  from  his  popularity.  Let  the 
teacher  take  his  place  on  the  play  ground  and  exercise 
with  the  pupils  in  their  games.  (See  228.)  The  study 
of  some  branch  of  Natural  Science,  as  Botany,  Zoology, 
or  Geology,  will  necessarily  lead  the  teacher  to  take  walks 
in  pursuit  of  knowledge.  Such  rambles  among  rocks 
and  trees  will  be  food  for  both  body  and  mind.  Riding 
on  horseback,  rowing,  skating,  driving,  working  in  the 
garden,  or  at  the  various  occupations  on  the  farm  are 
all  to  be  highly  recommended,  if  not  indulged  in  to 
excess,  as  beneficial  to  the  teacher's  health. 

What  must  I  say  about  diet?  Books  have  been  writ- 
ten on  the  subject  and  yet  men  may  follow  their  instruc- 
tions to  the  letter  and  come  out  in  a  few  years  dyspep- 
tics. But  I  will  say,  be  temperate.  It  is  not  so  much 
what  you  eat  as  it  is  how  you  eat  it.  Regular  meals 
when  the  occupation  is  regular,  and  moderate  in  quan- 
tity, eaten  slowly,  with  cheerful  company,  not  too  great 
a  variety  at  one  meal  to  tempt  the  appetite,  but  a  variety 
from  day  to  day,  not  very  much  animal  food,  an  avoid- 
ance of  pastry,  plenty  of  ripe  fruits  and  vegetables,  food 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  17 

coarse  rather  than  fine     these  requirements  will  keep 
one  in  health  so  far  as  diet  is  concerned. 

Another  essential  to  perfect  health  is  cleanliness. 
Frequent  bathing  <>t  the  whole  body  in  warm  or  tepid 
water  with  free  use  of  soap  and  frequent  change  of 
underclothing  will  go  far  towards  maintaining  health- 
Bathing  may  he  carried  to  excess.  The  skin  may  he 
excited  unduly, causing  extreme  sensitiveness  to  changes 
of  temperature.  Once  a  week  in  winter,  and  two  or 
three  times  a  week  in  summer  is  often  enough.  The 
same  clothing  that  is  worn  in  day  time,  should  not  be 
worn  at  night.  The  clothes  worn  next  the  skin  in  day 
time  should  he  removed,  and  allowed  to  air  at  night. 
They  may  he  put  on  again  in  the  morning,  and  those 
worn  at  night  allow  eel  to  air. 

Tobacco,  tea.  coffee  and  spirituous  liquors,  are  not 
necessary  for  any  one.  and  though  not  all  of  them 
always  injurious,  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  let  them 
severely  alone.     (See  p.  25). 

I  have  given  here  a  few  hints  which  I  trust  will  be 
regarded  by  the  teacher,  and  if  hi'  is  not  already  inform- 
ed in  the  matter  of  hygiene,  I  hope  he  will  studv  it,  and 
apply  his  knowledge  to  the  care  of  his  physical  organ- 
ization. 

Said  John  Locke,  nearly  two  hundred  years  ago,  ••  \ 

sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  is  a  short,  hut  full  descrip- 
tion of  a  happy  st.tte  in  this  world."'  A  man  can  not 
have  a  perfectly  sound  mind  without  a  sound  body,  and 
certainly,  though  one  may  enjoy  existence  without  .1 
Sound  mind,  he  is  not  capable  of    filling   the   position  of 

teacher. 
■2 


18  METHODS    OF  TEACHING 

IV.      SCIENTIFIC    AND    LITERARY    QUALIFICATIONS. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  to  teach  a  primary  school 
or  such  a  school  as  is  generally  found  in  country  districts, 
requires  but  slight  culture  and  scholarship.  While  it  is 
true  that  a  man  may  be  a  good  and  successful  teacher  of 
the  common  branches,  and  know  nothing  whatever  of 
Latin  or  Greek,  or  of  the  higher  mathematics,  or  of  the 
natural  sciences,  it  is  also  true,  that  had  he  knowledge 
of  these  higher  branches,  he  would  be  a  better  teacher. 
To  say  nothing  of  the  culture  and  enlargement  of  the 
mind,  by  the  study  of  science,  and  languages,  the  mere 
knowledge  obtained  is  of  great  value,  even  to  the  teacher 
of  the  most  primary  class. 

Under  the  present  state  of  society,  we  can  not  expect 
teachers  all  to  be  great  scholars.  They  may  commence 
teaching  with  no  more  education  than  that  to  be  obtained 
in  common  country  schools,  but  they  should  not  be  con- 
tent with  that.  While  they  teach  they  should  studv, 
study  not  only  how  best  to  teach,  but  to  improve  their 
minds  in  higher  branches  of  knowledge.      (See  page 

13)- 

The  teacher  should  always  be  a  learner,  and  if  he  is 
a  true  teacher,  he  will  learn  more  than  his  pupils.  He 
will  learn  not  only  more  of  the  branches  he  is  teaching, 
but  will  make  rapid  progress  in  the  higher  branches  of 
knowledge.  His  first  endeavor  should  be  to  attain  ordi- 
nary proficiency  in  the  branches  he  is  required  to  teach. 
This  he  should  have  before  attempting  to  manage  a 
school.  Then  while  teaching  he  should  study  the  les- 
sons ahead  of  his  classes,  that  he  may  come  before  them 
prepared  to  demonstrate  an}'  point  which  may  come  up. 


IN   COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  L9 

At  the  same  time  he  is  keeping  ahead  of  his  classes 
in  the  common  branches,  he  should  pursue  some  one  of 
the  higher  branches.  He  should  not,  however,  under- 
take too  many  studies  at  once.  Let  him  take  one  extra 
study  at  a  time,  and  when  he  has  attained  considerable 
proficiency,  take  up  another. 

Man\-  a  young  man  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the 
higher  branches  by  study  of  books  without  a  teacher, 
and  main-  young  men  can  yet  do  so,  but  in  these  days 
of  cheap  sehools.no  young  man  who  expects  to  become 
a  teacher,  should  fail  to  spend  at  least  one  term  in  some 
Normal  school,  or  institution  where  he  ma}'  obtain  a 
know  ledge  of  literature  and  science.  He  may,  if  behave 
a  good  common  school  education,  teach  a  term  or  two  in 
tlu-  country  and  then  spend  his  earnings  in  taking  a 
course  of  study  in  some  wide-awake  institution.  I  would 
not  recommend  a  college  course,  where  the  energetic 
country  youth  is  held  back  to  keep  pace  with  sons  of  rich 
men,  who  arc  sent  there  to  spend  their  fathers'  money, 
and  receive  a  thin  coat  of  polish  which  will  not  stand 
the  hard  knocks  of  that  greatest  educator  of  all,  the 
actual  business  world.  The  young  man  may  do  as  I 
have  known  young  men  to  do.  borrow  money  to  take  a 
course  at  school,  and  then  go  home  and  teach,  and  earn 
the  money  to  pay  it  back.  If  such  a  course  can  In-  pur- 
sued, tin-  young  man  can  well  afford  to  pay  a  good 
interest  on  the  money. 

You  can  acquire  the  fundamental   principles  of  the 

sciences  under  a  competent  instructor,  anil  in  contact  with 
others  who  are  enthusiastically  pursuing  the  same  study, 

much  more  rapidly  than  by  your  own  unaided  study. 

I  laving  thus  had  a  start,  you  can  pursue  these  branches  at 


20  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

your  leisure,  during  your  odd  moments,  and  while  you 
are  earning  some  money,  and  improving  yourself  in  the 
common  branches,  and  in  the  art  of  teaching  school,  and 
gaining  experience  of  great  value. 

Much  may  be  learned  by  improving  the  odd  moments. 
It  is  said  that  Dickens  never  wrote  more  than  two  hours 
a  day,  and  we  wonder  at  the  immense  amount  of  literary 
work  he  accomplished.  But  a  short  time  each  day  will 
accomplish  wonders.  It  is  not  the  protracted  efforts  once 
in  a  month  or  so  that  count,  but  it  is  the  little  every  day. 
Let  no  day  pass  in  which  ycu  do  not  do  some  studying, 
be  it  ever  so  little.  The  teacher  has  ample  time  if  he  im- 
prove it  properly,  to  inform  himself.  He  has  mornings 
and  evenings  and  Saturdays  to  study.  He  can  also  use  a 
portion  of  his  noons  and  recesses  in  looking  over  his 
lessons  for  the  day. 

It  is  best  to  have  some  regular  programme  for  study 
and  recreation.  For  example,  let  him  devote  half  an 
hour  each  morning  and  evening  to  the  study  of  some 
science,  not  allowing  any  ordinary  circumstances  to 
detract  from  this  half-hour  twice  each  day.  Let  him 
devote  an  hour  each  Saturday  to  the  study  of  history, 
another  hour  to  reading  works  on  teaching  or  educa- 
tion, and  half  an  hour  each  morning  and  evening  to  the 
preparation  for  his  daily  recitations,  and  the  remainder 
of  his  leisure  time  to  general  reading,  recreation  and 
exercise.  The  time  usually  spent  in  loafing  at  the  village 
store,  or  in  idle  conversation,  would  be  better  consumed 
in  general  reading,  such  as  newspapers,  magazines,  even 
fiction.  I  would  advise  the  teacher  to  be  careful  what 
fictitious  works  he  reads.  The  standard  authors  as 
Dickens,  Scott,  Mrs.  Stowe,  may  be  dipped  into  lightly, 


IN   COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  21 

but  too  much  time  spent  even  in  reading  the  best  and 
purest  winks  of  fiction  is  but  wasted.  Remember 
that  you  have  a  life-time  in  which  to  read  these  works, 
and  do  not  be  in  a  hurry  to  finish  them.  Use  them  as 
a  means  of  mental  relaxation,  but  do  not  be  carried  away 
by  them.  If  you  find  they  are  absorbing  too  much  of 
your  attention,  stop  and  lay  them  aside.  Better  even 
never  read  fiction  at  ajl  if  you  find  you  can  not  control 
your  appetite  for  it.  You  are  driving  a  fast  team,  and 
you  need  keep  a  tight  rein.  There  is  plenty  of  interest- 
ing general  reading  to  occupy  your  leisure  besides  tietion. 
Read  works  of  travel,  biographies,  historical  works,  and 
miscellaneous  sketches  and  you  will  find  yourself  better 
informed,  and  at  the  same  time  rested  from  more  active 
labors.  If  you  can  take  up  a  work  of  fiction,  and  read 
a  lew  minutes,  and  then  lay  it  down  without  an  effort, 
you  are  perfectly  safe,  but  if  it  absorbs  so  much  of  your 
mind,  and  excites  your  imagination  so  much  that  you 
will  sit  up  half  a  night  to  finish  a  novel, you  would  better 
never  look  inside  of  one.  I  was  once  a  whole  year 
reading  one  of  Dickens' novels,  and  I  am  positive  that 
it  did  me  more  good  than  if  I  had  read  it  in  two  davs 
or  two  weeks.  I  have  done  a  great  deal  of  light  reading 
while  walking  to  and  from  school,  but  as  this  is  hard  on 
the  eyes,  1  would  not  recommend  it.     Perhaps  if   not 

more  than  five  or  ten  minutes  at  a  time  is  spent  in  this 
way,  DO  harm  can  result  to  the  eyes.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  l  irry  a  book  with  you,  and  read  a  page  or  two.  and 
then  with  your  eyes  oil  tin-  book,  resting  them,  think 
over  what  you  have  read.  Consider  for  a  moment  what 
may  be  accomplished  in  this  way.  You  may  read  a 
page  in  a  minute,  and  ten   pages  each  day   will  amount 


22  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

to  a  large  book  at  the  end  of  the  year.  If  you  are 
enthusiastic  you  will  always  carry  a  book  or  magazine 
with  you,  and  read  while  waiting  for  your  meals,  for  the 
train,  anywhere  and  everywhere  opportunity  presents 
to  occupy  a  few  moments  in  this  way.  This  may  sound 
trifling,  but  remember  that, "  trifles  light  as  air  make  up 
the  sum  of  human  things,"  and  "  little  drops  of  water, 
little  grains  of  sand,  make  the  mighty  ocean,  and  the 
bounteous  land." 

The  teacher  needs  a  general  knowledge  not  only  to 
enable  him  to  teach  well,  but  enable  him  to  fill  a  high 
place  in  society.  But  almost  every  man  has  some 
special  talent  in  some  direction,  a  special  love  and 
talent  for  some  science  or  art  and  this  he  should  cul- 
tivate. Do  you  take  more  interest  in  Geology  than 
any  other  science,  then  commence  a  collection  of 
specimens  and  use  every  opportunity  to  inform  3-our- 
self  in  this  specialty.  If  it  is  Botany,  collect  a  her- 
barium. If  Chemistry,  get  a  few  chemicals  and  appa- 
ratus and  go  to  experimenting.  If  you  have  a  talent 
for  Music  or  Painting,  cultivate  it. 

In  general,  let  the  teacher  make  ample  preparation 
for  his  work,  and  though  he  do  not  follow  it  for  a  life- 
time, the  culture  he  receives  will  be  of  inestimable  value 
in  whatever  profession  or  walk  of  life  he  may  choose  or 
he  driven  to  accept.  Do  not  think  that  because  you  are 
only  a  country  teacher  that  you  need  no  special  training 
or  that  vou  will  never  amount  to  anvthing  in  the  world. 
Some  of  the  greatest  statesmen  and  scientists,  poets  and 
authors  of  this  country  began  their  career  as  teachers 
of  country  schools. 


1\    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  23 

V.    Till'.    SPIRIT   OF   Till:    TEACHER. 

Every  person  who  enters  the  sacred  temple  of  the 

school-room  for  the  purpose  of  assuming  control  of  the 

young  and  budding  minds    which    daily    assemble  for 

instruction,  should  make  a  careful  self-examination  and 

inquire  what  are  his  motives  and   what  the  spirit  which 

prompts  him  to  such  a  step.     Is  it  for  money  alone.'     Is 

it  for  popularity?     Is  it  because  he  is  unfitted  for  any 

other  occupation?     Is  it  because  he  loves  to  display  his 

knowledge?      If  he  has  no  higher  motives  than  these  he 

would  better  for  the  sake  of  those  who  are  to  be  under 

his  care  and  for  his  own  sake,  enlist  in  the  army,  go  to 
the  poor-house  or  run  off  to  sea. 

I  can  not  better  express  what  I  wish  my  readers  to 
know  than  in  the  language  of  an  old  and  prominent 
educator  whose  "  Theory  nth/  Practice  of  Teaching™  was 
of  great  value  to  me  in  my  first  years  of  teaching.  I 
refer  to  David  V.  Page,  who  says,  "  But  the  true  spirit 
of  the  teacher ;  -a  spirit  that  seeks  not  alone  pecuniary 
emolument,  but  desires  to  be  in  the  highest  degree  useful 
to  those  who  arc-  taught;  a  spirit  that  elevates  above 

everything  else  the  nature  and  capabilities  of  the  human 
soul,  and  that  trembles  under  the  responsibility  of 
attempting  to  be  its  educator:  a  spirit  that  looks  upon 
gold  as  the  contemptible  dross  of  the  earth,  when  com- 
pared with  that  imperishable  gem  which  is  to  be  polish- 
ed and  brought  out  into  heaven's  light  to  shine  forever; 
a  spirit  that  scorns  all  the  rewards  of  earth  and  seeks 
that  highest  <»f  all  rewards,  an  approving  conscience  and 
an  appi  '  >  <d:   a  spirit  that  earnestly  inquires  what 

is  right,  and  that  dreads   to  do   what  is  wrong;   a  spirit 


24:  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

that  can  recognize  and  reverence  the  handiwork  of  God 
in  eveiy  child,  and  that  burns  with  the  desire  to  be 
instrumental  in  training  it  to  the  highest  attainment  of 
which  it  is  capable, — such  a  spirit  is  the  first  thing  to  be 
sought  by  the  teacher,  and  without  it  the  highest  talent 
can  not  make  him  truly  excellent  in  his  profession." 

Cultivate  such  a  spirit  and  with  a  good  moral  charac- 
ter, with   good   mental  and  physical  endowments  you 
will  be  in  the  highest  degree  successful.     There    are 
manv  who  make  teaching  the   stepping-stone  to  some 
more  lucrative  employment  or  profession.     I  can  not 
say  that  this  is  altogether  wrong.     While  it  is  true  that 
experience  makes  good  teachers,  and  men    who  "have 
been  a  life-time  trying  to  improve  themselves  in  the  art 
of  teaching  are  generally  the  best  teachers,  yet  experi- 
ence is  not  reallv  necessary  to  make  a  good  teacher.    If 
a  vounsf  man  throws  his  whole  soul  into  the  work  and 
has  the  proper  qualifications  he  may  teach  as  well  the 
first  school  he  undertakes  as  he  would  after  forty  years* 
experience.     He  may  profit  by  the  experience  and  mis- 
takes of  others.      The  trouble  is  not  so  much  that  men 
make  teaching  a  stepping-stone  to  something  else,  but 
it  lies  in  the  fact  that  men  do  not  learn  to  do  with  their 
might  what  they  find  to  do.     A  young  man  may  be 
preparing  for  the  law,  medicine  or  the  ministry,  and  at 
the  same  time  be  wholly  and  heartily  enlisted  in  the 
work  of  teaching.     If  we  consider  the  matter  aright  a 
man  should  be  a  teacher  in  any  profession  and  he  who 
does  his  best  while  teaching  will  be  very  apt  to  do  his 
best  in  whatever  other  profession  he  may  afterwards 
choose.     In  other  words,  if  he  have  the  true  spirit  of  the 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  25 

teacher  he  will  have  the  true  spirit  of  the  lawyer, physi- 
cian or  minister. 

VI.    PERSON  U.    HABITS. 

If  men  were  perfectly  well  balanced  morally,  mentally 
and  physically,  perhaps  they  would  have  no  bad  habits; 
but  be  that  as  it  may,  a  few  words  here  in  regard  to  the 
habits  of  the  teacher  will  not  be  out  of  place.  The 
power  of  habit  is  great,  but  there  are  few  men  who 
have  habits  which  they  can  not  break,  and  every  man 
can  cultivate  good  habits.  Do  you  use  tobacco?  Break 
it  oil  when  you  enter  the  profession  of  teacher.  You 
can  do  it.  All  you  have  to  do  is  to  quit.  If  vou  have 
not  the  moral  stamina  to  say  to  yourself,  I  will  not  be 
ruled  by  habit,  you  are  not  tit  for  a  teacher.  Of  course, 
no  one  who  pretends  in  this  day  to  teach,  uses  ardent 
spirits,  at  least  they  are  so  few  that  I  need  not  say  any- 
thing about  it  here. 

As  the  following  points  have  been  touched  upon  else- 
where, I  wish  merely  to  call  attention  under  this  head 
to  some  of  the  good  habits  the  teacher  should  endeavor 
to  cultivate. 

r.  Neatness  of -person  and  dress.  The  teacher  should 
dress  well,  not  necessarily  in  costly  garments  but  neatly, 
plainly,  and  according  to  his  circumstances.  A  thread- 
bare coat  even  if  MOUt  at  the  elboWS "  will  look  well 
with  a  clean,  well-laundried  shirt  and  collar,  a  neat  neck 
tie  and  clean, polished  boots  or  shoes.  All  flashy,  fop- 
pish costume  is  out  <>f  place  upon  the  teacher.     The 

morning  ablution  of  face  and  hands,  neck  and  ears  and 
attention  to  the  finger  nails  and  teeth  .nc  of  importance 
to  neatness   of   appearance.       Cutting   and    cleaning   the 


26  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

finger  nails  and  picking  the  teeth  are  improper  in  com- 
pany. A  frequent  use  of  a  clothes  brush  to  remove 
dust  and  spots  of  grease,  and  of  a  hair  brush  to  remove 
dandruff  is  necessary.  No  -person  can  be  clean  and  use 
tobacco. 

He  who  is  neat  of  person  and  dress  will  necessarily 
try  to  keep  the  school-room  neat  and  clean. 

2.  System  and  regularity.  Let  everything  the  teacher 
does  be  done  in  a  regular  and  systematic  manner.  This 
habit  once  fixed  is  of  incalculable  importance.  Nearly 
all  men  who  have  made  a  name  and  fortune  in  business 
will  tell  you  that  they  owed  much  of  their  success  to  the 
habit  of  doing  everything  according  to  system.  (^See 
p.  12). 

3.  Politeness.  This  is  one  of  the  necessary  habits  of 
the  teacher.  The  true  teacher  is  ever  the  true  gentle- 
man. He  will  be  polite  and  courteous  in  manner  and 
in  language.  True  politeness  has  its  origin  in  love.  He 
who  loves  his  fellow  man  as  the  Saviour  commanded 
will  ever  be  polite.  It  is  the  spontaneous  overflow  of  a 
generous  and  noble  spirit.  The  teacher  who  posesses 
this  quality  will  exercise  politeness  to  all  with  whom  he 
comes  in  contact.  He  will  have  a  word  for  everybody, 
and  a  kind  look  and  engaging  manner  towards  children. 
His  conversation  will  not  be  polluted  with  slang,  nor 
poisoned  with  profanity. 

4.  Punctuality.  This  habit  should  be  studiously  cul- 
tivated. If  the  teacher  is  not  prompt  and  punctual  he 
can  not  expect  his  pupils  to  be.  He  should  carry  this 
habit  into  everything  he  undertakes.  Be  punctual  to  all 
engagments,  whether  to  meet  a  friend,  to  attend  church, 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  27 

to  business  matters,  to  school  duties,  or  in  whatever  you 
may  have  to  do  with  your  fellow  man. 

5.  Studiousness.  Study  must  be  made  a  habit.  As- 
sign certain  stated  times  for  study,  and  conscientiously 
devote  the  required  time  to  it.  You  must  study  every 
day,  if  it  is  only  a  little. 

VII.    IX  RELATION    TO    PATRONS. 

The  highest  duty  of  man  is  to  please  God,  next  to 
please  his  fellow  man  and  lastly  to  please  himself.  The 
majority  of  men,  perhaps,  reverse  this  order  in  practice. 
Bui  if  a  man  do  right  he  will  please  God,  all  good  men 
and  himself.  A  great  responsibility  rests  upon  the 
teacher.  He  is  placed  in  charge  <>f  a  number  of  human 
beings, young,  inexperienced,  of  impressible  and  elastic 
nature,  capable  of  being  moulded,  bended  at  the  will  of 
the  operator.  He  holds  these  beings  in  trust  and  is 
n  sponsible  for  their  well-being  and  advancement  while 
under  his  care.  It  is  true  a  teacher  has  a  hard  task  and 
too  much  is  often  expected  of  him.  When  children  are 
without  moral  or  mental  training  at  home  and  inherit 
passions  and  appetites  from   vicious   parents,  it  is  not   to 

be  supposed  the  teacher  during  the  comparatively  short 
time  they  are  under  his  care,  should  reform  and  change 
their  nature.  Hut  much  tan  be  done  towards  this  result 
and  the  most  earnest  worker  will  accomplish   the   most. 

The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  please  his  patrons. 
In  order  to  do  this  his  patrons  should  be  acquainted  with 
his  plans  and  modes  of  work.     Every  parent   in    the 

district  should  be   visited   at   least   once   during  the  term 

of  school  anil  if  possible  every  parent  should  be  induced 

to  visit  the  SchooL  The  teacher  should  anticipate  any 
trouble  which  may  arise  between  him   and   the   parents, 


28  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

visit  them  and  talk  the  matter  over,  and  if  possible,  nip 
the  trouble  in  the  bud.  If  the  child  brings  any  orders 
or  instructions  to  the  teacher  from  the  parent,  the  teacher 
should  at  once  visit  that  parent  and  talk  the  matter  over 
and  come  to  a  fair  understanding.  In  nine  cases  out  of 
ten,  the  parent  will  yield  to  the  teacher's  plans  and  ap- 
prove of  them,  where  otherwise  if  the  teacher  had  gone 
on,  and  done  as  he  thought  best  without  consulting  the 
parent,  he  would  have  made  an  enemy  of  him,  much  to 
his  subsequent  regret.  There  should  be  a  perfect  under- 
standing between  teacher  and  patron,  and  perfect  co- 
operation in  the  plans  of  teacher  and  school  board. 

The  country  teacher  will  find  all  kinds  of  men  to  deal 
with.  He  will  find  mercenary,  close-fisted  school  direc- 
tors, who  will  grudge  him  his  wages,  and  will  not  listen 
to  any  demands  for  expenditures  in  regard  to  the  school 
or  school-house.  He  will  find  directors  who  are  careless 
and  indifferent  to  the  matter,  who  will  not  express  an 
opinion  in  regard  to  his  plans,  tell  him  to  go  ahead  and 
do  as  he  thinks  best,  but  if  any  trouble  arises,  in  which 
their  children  are  concerned,  they  will  be  the  first  to  make 
complaint  and  spread  evil  reports  about  the  teacher. 
He  will  find  men  who  are  continually  meddling  and 
causing  trouble  in  the  school.  He  will  find  families 
who,  having  feuds  among  themselves,  will  carry  them 
into  the  school-room,  and  the  teacher  will  be  put  to  his 
wit's  end  to  manage  matters.  He  will  find  the  north 
end  of  the  district  arrayed  against  the  south  end,  a  vil- 
lage part  against  the  country  part  of  a  district,  political 
troubles,  differences  among  rich  and  poor,  all  of  which 
will  afiect  the  welfare  of  his  school.  The  teacher  then 
needs  to  be  a  tactician  of   high  order.     He  should  be 


I\   COUNTRY   SCHOOLS.  •-'■> 

ever  on  the  watch-tower  to  Eoresee  these  difficulties  and 
devise  some  means  to  meet  them. 

The  teacher  should  make  himself  familiar  with  his 
patrons,  take  an  interest  in  their  business,  not  in  a  med- 
dling manner,  but  that  he  may  converse  with  them  on 
topics  with  which  they  are  familiar.  Let  him  talk  to 
the  tanner  about  his  crops,  to  the  stock  raiser  or  dealer 
about  his  cattle  and  hogs,  to  the  mechanic  about  his 
work,  &C  Let  him  not  be  too  ready  to  communicate 
knowledge,  but  rather  be  a  good  listener,  and  by  a  few 
judicious  questions  lead  them  to  do  the  greater  part  of 
the  talking.  In  this  way  he  will  make  himself  agree- 
able to  his  patrons,  and  they  can  not  have  reason  to 
think  he  feels  above  them.  Poor  people  and  many 
country  people  are  very  sensitive  on  this  point  and  are 
often  ready  to  think  a  man  feels  himself  above  them 
when  no  such  thing  is  true.  In  many  localities  there  is 
nothing  that  people  so  much  detest  as  what  thev  stvle  a 
u big-feeling "  person  or  a  "big-head."  A  teacher  in 
the  country  must  have  a  good  deal  of  the  "  do-as-the- 
Romans-do"  feeling  in  order  to  succeed.  St.  Paul  said,  '•! 
was  all  things  to  all  nun,  that  I  might  win  some.''  So  it 
must  be  with  the  teacher  to  a  certain  extent.     (See  p.  i  3). 

A  few  words  in  this  connection  about  making  appli- 
cation for  a  school  will  not  be  inappropriate.  The 
teacher  has  here  an  opportunity  to  try  his  tact.  I 
do  not  mean  that  he  should  try  his  skill  in  driving  a 
.sharp  bargain  although  it  is  sometimes  necessary,  for 
school  boards  will  hire  a  teacher  as  they  would  buy  a 
pair  of  shoes,  but  I  mean  that  he  should  so  adapt  him- 
self to  circumstances  that  he  may  make  the  most  favor- 
able impression  upon  the  men  with  whom  he  is  dealing. 


30  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

To  illustrate  I  will  at  the  risk  of  seeming  egotistic,  relate 
a  bit  of  my  own  experience  in  this  line.     I  had  just  been 
attending  a  Normal  school  in  the  vicinity  and  the  school 
boards  in  that  section  had  been  imposed  upon  in  a  num- 
ber of   instances  by  young  men    who   attending   this 
school  and  having  run  short  of  funds,  attempted  to  raise 
them  by  seeking  employment  in  the  neighborhood  as 
teachers.     Of  course  I  was  asked  immediately  if  I  had 
been  a  student  of  said  school  and  on  answering  in  the 
affirmative  was  met  with  the  rebuff  that  I  was  not 
wanted.     Before  coming  to  the  next  man  I  determined 
to  change  my  tactics.      It  was  harvest  time  and  I  found 
the  men  busy  in  the  field.  I  climbed  over  the  fence  and  be- 
gan binding  wheat  until  I  came  up  to  the  men.     Having 
found  the  director,  I  kept  on  at  work  while  talking  to 
him.     He  never  thought  of  inquiring  whether  I  was 
from  that  school  but  I  was  told  afterwards  that  I  had 
created  a  favorable  impression  because  I  seemed  not  to 
be  afraid  of  work.     I  contracted  for  that  school  at  mv 
own  figures.     I  do  not  give  this  as  a  model  way  of  ap- 
plying for  a  school  but  to  illustrate  the  power  of  tact. 
Remember  that  tact  outweighs  talent  very  often.    Show 
that  you  mean  business  and  do  not  display  any  disposi- 
tion to  yield  to  the  desire  for  a  cheap  teacher.     Teach- 
ers themselves  are  very  often  to  blame  for  their  low 
wages.     If  they  would  use  a  little  of  the  shrewdness 
used  by  the  farmer  selling  a  horse  the  standard  of  wages 
would  increase.      In  the  first  place  you  should  qualify 
yourself  to  teach  and  then  rate  your  services  sufficients- 
high.      A  poor  teacher  is  like  poor  butter,  dear  at  any 
price. 

Always  make  a  written  contract.     In  some  places  it 


1\    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  31 

is  required  by  boards  of  education ;  in  others  merely  a 
verbal  contract  is  all  that  is  asked. 

VIII.    IX    RELATION    TO    SOCIETY. 

The  teacher  should  be  a  model  man  in  the  community 
in  which  he  moves.  If  he  has  all  the  requirements  of 
a  true  teacher,  he  will  be  a  model  man,  and  very  little 
more  need  be  said  on  this  point.  He  should  be  emi- 
nently of  asocial  disposition,  and  mingle  much  with 
society.  It  is  proper  to  see  the  teacher  take  a  part  in 
social  parties,  in  the  Sunday  school,  in  church,  in  all 
meetings  and  organizations  which  are  for  the  public 
good.  lie  should  not,  however,  show  a  partisan  or  sec- 
tarian spirit,  nor  on  the  other  hand,  attempt  to  please  all 
by  carrying  water  on  both  shoulders.  But  let  him  be 
straightforward,  candid  and  honest  in  his  views  and  utter- 
ances, lie  may  have  his  political  creed  and  religious 
Creed  but  it  is  not  well  to  make  much  of  a  display  of 
either.  Let  him  show  the  teacher  in  all  that  he  dors. 
teaching  both  by  example  and  precept,  not  intruding  his 
services  but  ready  and  willing  at  all  times  to  respond  to 
the  public  desire.  I  [e  should  be  above  those  little  envies 
and  jealousies  which  abound  in  some  communities.  He 
should  have  none  of  that  disposition  which  liiuls  utter- 
ance in  the  expression,  "If  I  can  not  have  the  best  place 
I  do  not  want  any."  lie  should  have  none  of  the  "rule 
or  ruin"  policy.     (See  p.  13  . 

l\.    IN    RELATION    TO   Till:    PROFESSION. 

"Iron  sharpeneth  iron."  The  teacher  should  come 
frequently  in  contact  with  Others  of  his  class.  He 
ean  learn  something  from  every  teacher.  Let  him 
visit  other  schools  and  observe  the  work  of  other  teach- 


32  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

ers.  He  will  not  fail  to  find  something  to  model  after 
or  see  something  to  avoid.  His  own  faults  may  be  re- 
peated by  some  one  else  and  by  seeing  them  in  others 
he  is  more  apt  to  see  that  they  are  faults.  He  may 
learn  much  by  conversing  with  other  teachers,  especi- 
ally with  those  who  have  had  more  experience,  and  he 
should  seek  opportunity  to  converse  with  such  teachers. 

He  should  attend  and  take  part  in  teachers'  institutes 
and  associations.  The  country  teachers  are  too  apt  to 
stand  back  and  the  city  teachers  who  generally  conduct 
such  institutes  willingly  permit  them  to  do  so.  We 
hear  the  frequent  complaint  that  institutes  are  of  little 
benefit  to  country  teachers.  It  is  only  too  true. 
The  plans  and  methods  there  discussed  and  presented 
by  prominent  educators  are  rarely  applicable  to  the 
country  school.  Many  of  the  institute  lecturers  are  men 
who  never  taught  in  a  country  school,  or  if  they  did  it 
was  many  years  before,  and  the  ideas  they  have  are 
such  as  they  have  acquired  by  reading  or  theorizing  in 
their  study-rooms.  These  men  will  take  a  class  of 
young  men  and  women  and  proceed  to  instruct  them  as 
though  they  were  small  children,  expecting  to  exhibit 
in  this  way  their  modes  of  instructing  children.  Did  it 
never  occur  to  any  of  them  or  to  their  hearers  that  if  a 
class  of  real  children  were  before  them  matters  might 
not  proceed  so  smoothly?  Some  of  these  prominent 
institute  instructors  I  fear  would  not  make  a  success  of 
a  school  in  a  back-woods  district. 

A  good  plan  for  country  teachers  would  be  to  organ- 
ize township  institutes  and  instruct  each  other.  Let 
them  be  something  of  the  nature  of  a  medical  society, 
consisting  of  free  interchange  of  thought  and  opinion  in 


IN   COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  33 

the  form  of  essays,  orations,  debates,  &c.  If  all  the 
teachers  of  a  township  can  not  be  brought  together,  let 
any  half  dozen  or  more  teachers  organize  themselves 
into  a  society  and  meet  once  or  twice  a  month  on  Sat- 
urdays at  convenient  places.  Much  good  might  be 
done  in  this  way.  I  am  appealing  now  to  the  reader  of 
this  book  to  work  up  something  of  this  kind  in  his  neigh- 
borhood. You  can  do  it  and  you  ought  to  do  it.  Large 
sums  are  annually  expended  in  almost  every  county 
for  prominent  instructors  at  teachers'  institues.  Does 
the  outlay  pay?  It  undoubtedly  pays  the  instructors 
but  I  l^ar  the  country  teacher  is  paying  a  big  price  to 
hear  a  " big  gun "  which  makes  but  little  more  than 
noise  after  all.  These  local  or  township  societies  will 
cost  scarcely  anything  and  will  be  of  undoubted  value  to 
the  teachers. 


3 


CHAPTER   II. 


THE    SCHOOL. 

I.     PRELIMINARY     WORK. 

The  teacher's  work  begins  the  moment  he  has  con- 
tracted for  the  school.  He  should  endeavor  first  to  learn 
something  of  the  nature  of  the  school  he  is  about  to  un- 
dertake. This  knowledge  he  may  obtain  from  the 
parents,  from  the  former  teachers,  and  possibly,  from 
the  children  themselves.  Spend  a  week  or  more  in  get- 
ting acquainted  with  the  parents  and  pupils.  You  need 
not  use  any  formality  but  drop  into  their  homes  and 
chat  with  them.  You  will  learn  all  sorts  of  things  about 
the  school  in  an  indirect  manner  and  without  asking- 
many  questions.  They  will  be  ready  to  tell  you  all 
about  the  school  as  conducted  the  previous  term  and 
about  the  bad  pupils  and  what  parents  are  meddlesome 
and  you  will  hear  all  sorts  of  opinions  about  the  former 
teacher.  You  can  then  make  up  some  opinion  from 
this  evidence,  conflicting  though  it  may  be.  You  should 
visit  the  school-house  and  find  out  what  repairs  or  appa- 
ratus may  be  needed  and  kindly  ask  the  Directors  to 

(34) 


IN   COUNTRY   SCHOOLS.  :'»."» 

have  things  In  order  before  school  commences.  You 
should  unfold  to  them  your  plans  and,  i£ .possible,  obtain 
their  promise  of  co-operation.  If  possible,  see  or  cor- 
respond with  the  previous  teacher  and  learn  from  him 
his  plans  and  such  knowledge  of  the  school  as  he  may 
be  able  to  give. 

There  is  nothing  like  making  a  good  beginning.  I  lav- 
ing  found  out  what  kind  of  a  school  you  are  likely  to 
have  and  what  branches  will  he  .studied,  you  can  have 
a  programme  made  out  before  entering  the  school.  Of 
course  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  changes  in  the  pro- 
gramme, but  it  is  best  to  have  one  made  out  in  genera] 
form  before  the  first  day  of  school. 

A  programme  will  vary  according  to  the  number  and 
character  of  the  branches  taught  and  somewhat  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  school.  The  teacher 
is  required  by  law  to  teach  so  mam'  hours.  I  would  ad- 
vise a  teacher  to  be  prompt  and  punctual  to  time,  not. 
leaching  any  more  nor  any  less  than  tin-  required  time. 
Schools  in  the  country  usually  begin  at  o,  o'clock  and 
close  at  .[  with  one  hour  tor  noon  and  two  recesses  of  15 

minutes  each.  I  have  here  a  programme  which  provides 
within  the  time  allotted,  space  for  all  the  branches  usual- 
ly taught  in  the  country  school.     It  is  a  programme  both 

"I  recitation  and  study,  and  for  convenience  [have  divid- 
ed the  school  into  three  grades  on  the  snbjeet  of  reading. 

The  \  grade  consists  of  the  rst,  2nd,  and  3rd  Readers; 

the  1:  grade  of  the    ph  and  51I1   Readers,  and  the  c  grade 

of  the  6th  Reader.    The  words  in  hold  faced  type 

denote  recitations;  in  common  type,  studies.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  part  of  the  advanced  lessons  will  be  prepared 
outside   of  school   hours.      It    will   be   objected,  perhaps. 


36  METHODS    OF  TEACHING 

by  some  that  the  time  allotted  to  recitations  is  too  short. 
I  answer  that  I  have  been  obliged  to  teach  all  the  above 
branches  within  the  allotted  time  and  of  course  had  to 
do  the  best  I  could.  If  there  are  not  so  many  branches, 
then  more  time  can  be  allowed  to  the  others.  I  have  here 
provided  for  the  extreme  cases.  It  will  be  observed  that 
there  is  no  time  for  a  Primary  Grammar  class.  The 
reader  is  referred  to  the  chapter  on  Grammar  for  an 
explanation.  I  have  grouped  all  beginners  in  reading 
as  the  Primer  class.  During  the  winter  months  in 
some  schools  there  will  be  none  to  represent  this  class, 
none  but  can  read  in  the  ist  Reader.  The  programme 
is  so  arranged  that  the  very  small  pupils  may  be  dis- 
missed half  an  hour  earlier  than  the  others;  also,  that 
they  can  be  allowed  to  go  out  and  play  in  fine  weather 
after  they  have  recited.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  time  to 
study  a  lesson  is  provided,  so  far  as  possible,  immediately 
after  the  recitation.  This  should  be  insisted  on  from  the 
beginning. 

The  grades  a,  b  and  c  are  only  here  given  for  con- 
venience in  arranging  the  programme.  They  are  not 
absolute  divisions  of  the  school.  As  a  general  rule  those 
placed  in  the  b  grade  will  study  Primary  Geography, 
Arithmetic  to  about  as  far  as  Fractions  and  be  in  the 
Primary  Spelling  class ;  but  some  who  are  in  this  grade 
may  study  Grammar,  Advanced  Geography,  History, 
or  Physiology,  and  some  who  are  in  the  c  grade  may 
be  in  a  Primary  Geography  class  or  Primary  Spelling 
class.  These  grades  are,  therefore,  only  arbitrary  divis- 
ions necessary  to  form  a  programme  both  of  study  and 
recitation.  Many  pupils  may  belong  to  two  of  the 
grades. 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS. 


37 


PROGR  WIMK  ()!••   KIa  ITATION  AND  STUDY: 

TIME. 

A    (.KADI.. 

B  GRADE. 

C   GRADE. 

Begins 

Ends  1  Continues. 

9-S     1           5 

GENERAL   EXERCISES. 

9:15 
935 

0:15 

10 

10 
10 
10 

I'rimer  Class  1 
1 -t    Reader             c     «■ 
•:.,.!  Reader              Spelling 

/.lit    KiailcT     ! 

Spelling 

I  lislory 

0:50 

S         I 

Rest 

■  5      !  ,o:S 


iS 


Slates   \  Bloi  !%•- 
Reading 


nil   Reader 

Prim.  «;<•<>!;. 


Advanced  ( teog. 


10:20 

iS 

Recess. 

10  js 
II 

'0:45 
1 1 
11:15 

10 

«s 

15 

I'rimer  Class 

Sl.itcs  *  Blocks 

Primary    (icog. 

Grammar 

A  lc«'lira 

11:15 

11:20 

5 

Rest, 

1 1 .20 
11  js 

"■:35 
>S 

■S 

2S 

Reading 

.".Ill      K.Mll.T 

A  lit  h  tin  1  i<- 

<  rrammar 

12 

■ 

60 

NOON. 

1 
1  :io 

1  20 

1  30 

1  •  . 

>:,o 

1  I" 

1  ;; 

IO 
IO 
IO 
IO 
15 

I'rimer  Class 
i-t    Reader 
2nd  Reader 
3rd  Reader 

Slates  a  Blocks 

Reading 

Arithmetic 
r.tli  Reader 

"oS    1 

-■ 

5           1 

Rest. 

2 


»:iS 


IS 
«S 


lii.n  kboard 
Ri  tding 


Arithmetic 


I    3:-tS  I 


R« 


\iU  «;.-<>^. 
IMij  siolo^y 


; 
<  is 


IHS 

4 


«s 
■s 
■s 


a  Blocks 
Dismissed 


I'ii  ■  r.  SpelTg. 

Arithmetic 

Writing 

Reading 


\ii\ .  Spelling 

I  .  S.    History 
\\  lit  injj 

A  •  1 1  li  in.  1  n 


II.   ORGANIZING. 


If  the  preliminary  work  detailed  in  the  previous  sec- 
tion be  attended  to,  the  work  of  organizing  will  be  ma- 
terially Lessened.  You  should  spend  but  little  time  or- 
ganizing  and  getting  ready  for  active  work.  You 
should  commence  at  once  with  an  explanation  of  the 
programme.  That  all  may  have  something  to  do  you 
should  assign  a  lesson  for  each  class,  something  not  verv 

difficult  hut  which  will  OCCUpy  their  attention  a  short 
time  at  least.  The  time  allotted  on  programme  for  "-en- 
eral  exercises  will  he   sufficient   for  explanation   of  pro- 

gramme  and  assigning  lessons  and  then  you  are  ready 


38  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

to  begin  the  recitations.  Have  a  little  bock  in  which  to 
enroll  the  names  of  the  pupils  of  each  cle.ss  when  they 
have  taken  their  places  at  the  recitation  seats.  By  en- 
rolling their  names  in  this  way  by  classes  you  will  the 
sooner  become  acquainted  with  the  individual  pupils, 
and  it  is  not  so  embarrassing  as  taking  a  general  enroll- 
ment of  the  whole  school  at  once.  Go  strictly  accord- 
ing to  programme.  Do  not  vary  a  minute.  Commence 
this  the  first  day  and  continue  it  until  the  last.  Not  very 
much  in  the  way  of  study  need  be  expected,  the  first 
day  and  consequently  the  recitation  time  can  be  taken 
up  in  preliminary  drills  on  the  next  lessor,  in  enrolling 
names  and  in  familiar  talk  about  their  studies.  The 
time  on  programme  denoted  "Rest"  you  can  occupy 
the  first  day  in  general  remarks  on  your  plan  of  govern- 
ment, the  necessity  of  system  and  order  in  the  school, 
&c. 

See  that  every  pupil  has  a  slate  and  pencil.  If  all 
have  not,  ask  them  if  they  will  not  try  and  get  the  mas 
soon  as  possible.  Attend,  also,  to  the  matter  of  getting 
books. 

If  you  commence  in  this  way  as  though  you  meant 
business  and  thoroughly  understood  your  business,  you 
will  create  a  good  impression  among  your  pupils  the 
first  day  and  this  is  a  point  of  great  value.  As  it  be- 
comes necessary  you  may  make  slight  changes  in  the 
programme  but  frequent  changes  should  be  avoided  and 
they  may  be,  if  you  have  well  studied  the  matter  before 
hand.  I  have  often  heard  teachers  remark  that  they 
always  dreaded  the  first  and  last  days  of  school.  In 
regard  to  the  first  day  if  they  would  prepare  themselves 
as  I  have  suggested  before  coming  to  the  school-house 


IN   COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  '■'>'■' 

and   then  commence  actual  business  at  once,  the  first 
day  need  not  be  a  source  of  dread. 

Any  lengthy  speeches  or  remarks  about  the  former 
school,  or  boasting  of  what  you  expect  to  accomplish 
arc  out  of  place  not  only  the  first  day,  but  every  Other 
day  of  the  school. 

III.    CONDUCTING    RECITATIONS. 

As  much  will  be  said  on  this  subject  in  connection 
with  the  methods  of  teaching  the  various  branches,  a 
few  genera]  observations  will  be  all  that  is  necessary 
heir. 

The  success  of  a  teacher  depends  in  the  Largest  meas- 
ure upon  the  manner  in  which  he  conducts  a  recitation. 
Remember  that  it  is  one  thing  to  hear  a.  class  recite  and 
another  to  conduct  a  recitation  properly.  Under  the 
ancient  regime  we  heard  of  a  Master  who  kept  school 
and  heard  his  scholars  recite.  Now  it  is,  or  should  be, 
a  Tear  her  who  teaches  his  pupils. 

The  objects  of  a  recitation  may  be  grouped  under 
four  heads  as  follows: 

i.     Examination. 

i.      Instruction. 

}.     Cultivation. 

4.  Excitation. 
I.  It  is  to  be  supposed  the  pupil  has  studied  his  les- 
son and  the  first  object  is  to  find  out  what  he  knows 
about  it.  This  information  is  necessary  for  several  rea- 
sons. Tin-  teacher  must  know  what  the  pupil  has 
learned  in  order  to  assign  further  lessons  and  give  addi- 
tional instruction.  The  pupil  by  rehearsing  what  he 
has   learned    fixes   it   in   his   memory   and   cultivates   the 


40  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

power  of  expression  and  receives  instruction  from  his 
fellow  pupils.  The  first  thing  is  the  examination  of  the 
written  work  previously  prepared  by  the  pupils.  This 
may  be  accompanied  with  instruction,  encouragement, 
criticism  or  censure.  Next  the  teacher  should  test  the 
knowledge  of  the  pupils  by  calling  for  reports  on  topics, 
by  questions  judiciously  put,  by  written  work  on  black- 
board or  slates,  by  reviews,  drills,  &c.  Questions  are 
advantageously  used  and  also  abused  by  teachers.  As 
a  general  thing  leading  questions  or  such  as  suggest  the 
answer,  should  be  avoided.  If  used,  they  should  be 
only  for  young  pupils  or  for  reviews  or  as  an  occasional 
concert  drill.  Questions  should  be  so  put  as  to  lead  the 
pupil  to  think  and  answer  them  in  his  own  language. 
Pupils  should  not  be  called  upon  in  rotation,  but  promis- 
cuously. This  secures  better  attention  and  bars  the 
possibility  of  special  preparation  for  special  parts  of  the 
lesson  to  the  neglect  of  other  parts.  When  called  upon 
to  report  on  a  topic  it  is  generally  best  that  a  pupil  rise 
to  his  feet,  especially  if  the  class  is  large. 

The  importance  of  constant  reviewing  can  not  be 
overestimated.  A  review  of  the  lesson  of  the  previous 
day  should  be  had  each  day.  This  need  not  occupy 
much  time  as  only  the  leading  points  of  the  lesson  should 
be  reviewed.  Not  only  should  each  lesson  be  reviewed, 
but  not  less  than  once  a  week  there  should  be  a  general 
review  of  all  passed  over  since  the  last  review,  and 
once  a  month  or  so  there  should  be  a  general  review 
of  the  whole  subject  from  the  beginning.  Review 
lessons  may  be  given  occasionally,  requiring  written 
answers  to  questions  placed  on  the  black-board  by  the 
teacher. 


W    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  41 

2.     It  is  the  office  of  the  teacher  to  impart  additional 
information.     Much  of  this  may  be  done  in  preliminary 

drills.  The  teacher  should  be  a  treasure  house  of  infor- 
mation on  each  branch  he  teaches.  He  can  be  this  by 
constant  study  of  the  lessons  previous  to  the  recitations 
and  by  being  a  general  reader  and  making  notes  of 
what  he  reads.  Ever}  teacher  should  have  a  blank 
book  in  which  to  note  down  anything  and  everything 
which  may  have  a  possible  bearing  on  the  branches  he 
expects  to  teach.  There  are  many  points  of  interest 
which  may  be  learned  from  newspapers,  magazines  and 
journals,  encyclopedias,  works  of  biography,  history  and 
travel,  and  in  larger  treatises  on  the  same  subjects  of  the 
class  books,  which  should  be  noted  down  under  the 
proper  heads  convenient  for  reference.  Among  these 
points  are  snch  as  follows:  In  Arithmetic,  short  meth- 
ods of  solving  examples,  curious  properties  of  numbers, 
history  and  origin  of  figures,  test  examples.  In  Geo- 
graphy,  popular  names  of  states,  cities  and  countries,  ori- 
gin and  meaning  of  names,  historical  incidents  connected 
with  places  or  countries,  remarkable  natural  curiosities, 
manners  and  customs  of  the  people,  recent  political 
changes,  and  much  other  matter  not  found  in  the  text- 
books. In  Grammar,  disposition  of  difficult  construc- 
tions, outlines,  remarks  on  the  history  and  origin  of  lan- 
guage, &C.  In  I  [istory,  incidents  not  found  in  text-hooks 
popular   names   and   appellations    of    nun.    biographical 

sketches,  points  in  the  philosophy  of  history,  recent 
events,  &c.     In  Natural  Science,  any  easy  experiment, 

or    remarkable   or   interesting   fact.      In    general,  the 

teacher    should    note    down    any    thought    which    mav 

come  to  him  at  odd  times,  or  any  observation  dropped 


42  METHODS    OF  TEACHING 

from  the  lips  of  others  on  the  methods  of  teaching,  gov- 
erning, or  managing  a  school,  or  any  information  ob- 
tained from  lectures,  political  speeches  or  sermons  which 
would  have  a  bearing  on  his  school  work.  Such  a  book 
will  prove  in  a  few  years  a  mine  of  gold  to  any  teacher. 
Also  let  him  make  a  scrap-book,  and  from  every  news- 
paper he  can  get  hold  of  cull  fragments  of  value,  and 
paste  them*  in  it.  It  is  remarkable  what  may  be  done 
in  a  few  years  in  this  way.  I  have  a  scrap-book  which 
no  money  would  buy  and  it  has  not  cost  me  one  cent  of 
outlay.  I  have  fragments  which  I  have  been  gathering 
for  ten  years  and  now  it  is  a  volume  of  history,  biogra- 
phy, poetry,  literature,  science  and  art.  It  is  my  plan 
to  cut  out  of  every  paper  which  I  can  get  hold  of, 
whether  it  is  one  I  subscribe  for  or  a  stray  copy  given 
me,  or  one  which  has  been  wrapped  around  goods,  or 
one  picked  up  in  the  street;  I  cut  out  I  say  everything 
useful  or  interesting  and  then  sort  them  over  and  put  in 
scrap-book  those  of  most  value,  classifying  them  under 
the  proper  heads. 

But  the  teacher  must  not  be  a  lecturer.  He  may  talk 
too  much.  It  is  not  the  amount  of  information  given, 
but  the  amount  imbibed  which  counts.  Give  a  little  at 
each  recitation  and  let  no  recitation  pass  without  a  little, 
but  avoid  prolixity. 

He  should  be  ready  in  the  use  of  familiar  illustrations 
and  should  cultivate  the  power  of  explanation.  To  do 
this  he  must  study  his  lesson  before  coming  to  the  class. 
Prof.  Alfred  Holbrook  used  to  say  there  were  three 
grades  of  teaching  power;  ist  and  lowest,  the  power  to 
make  the  brightest  pupils  understand;  2nd,  the  power 
to  make  the  majority  of  the  class  understand,  and  3rd, 


in    COl   NTR1     SCHOOLS.  tS 

and  highest  power  was  to  make  the  dullest  pupil  in  the 
class  understand.  Study,  teacher,  to  attain  to  this  high- 
est grade  of  teaching  power. 

The  teacher  will  also  instruct  the  pupil  how  to  study 
a  lesson  and  carefully  direct  his  studies.  This  should 
be  done  at  the  close  of  a  recitation  as  a  preliminary  drill 
for  the  next  lesson.  t 

3.  The  teacher  should  seek  by  the  recitation  to  cul- 
tivate accurate  and  fluent  expression  in  writing  and 
speaking.  The  pupils  have  prepared  written  work  at 
their  seats.  By  careful  examination  and  just  criticism 
the  teacher  can  aid  the  pupil  to  cultivate  his  power 
of  expressing  himself  in  writing.  Spelling.  Capitals, 
Punctuation,  Syntax.  Arrangement.  Method.  Neatness, 
&C.,  should  be  carefully  noted.  In  speaking,  also,  the 
pupil  should  be  cultivated  in  throwing  off  embarrass- 
ment, and  in  the  use  of  good  language. 

lie  should  seek  to  cultivate  in  his  pupils  habits  of  at- 
tention. Much  may  be  done  in  this  respect  by  mutual 
criticisms.      Care  should  be  taken,  however,  that  it  is  not 

overdone.  Dl  feeling  is  sometimes  the  result  of  pupils 
criticising  each  other,  and  among  small  pupils  much 
confusion  in  the  class  results  unless  it  is  carefully  con- 
trolled by  the  teacher.  A  good  plan  to  cultivate  atten- 
tion is  to  call  frequently  for  a  report  or  repetition  of  some 
explanation  or  information  given  by  teacher  or  any  of 
the  pupils.  For  example,  the  teacher  imparts  to-day 
some  information  not  given  in  the  text-book,  and  to-mor- 
row calls  for  a  repetition  of  it  from  the  class.  This  is 
an  excellent  exercise. 

a.     I  nder  the  head  of  Excitation,  <I  beg  pardon  for 

using  an  unfamiliar  word,  but  I  could  find  no  other  which 


44  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

would  so  well  express  my  meaning),  I  wish  to  speak  of 
the  teacher's  duty  to  arouse  an  interest  in  study,  excite 
a  love  for  study  and  lead  the  pupil  into  channels  of  in- 
dependent thought  and  investigation. 

He  must  arouse  an  interest  and  excite  a  love  for  study 
by  a  careful  attention  to  the  previous  points  in  this 
section.  In  addition,  the  teacher  should  be  full  of  en- 
thusiasm. The  pupils  will  imbibe  this  feeling  in  a  meas- 
ure from  the  teacher.  They  will  not  likely  be  interested 
in  their  work  unless  the  teacher  is  interested  in  his  work. 
This  holy  enthusiasm  is  one  of  the  main  points  of  dis- 
tinguishing a  true  and  good  teacher  from  a  dull  and 
lifeless  and  inferior  teacher. 

He  should  lead  his  pupils  into  new  pastures  of  inde- 
pendent thought  and  original  investigation  by  judicious 
questions  and  directions,  and  by  assigning  appropriate 
topics.  Timid  and  slow  pupils  should  be  encouraged  by 
kind  words  and  favorable  comments. 

IV.    GOVERNMENT. 

Volumes  have  been  written  on  this  topic  alone.  I 
propose  to  make  a  very  short  treatise  answer  my  pur- 
pose. If  a  teacher  teach  well  he  will  have  but  little 
governing  to  do.  The  tap  root  of  a  system  of  govern- 
ment in  school  is  to  furnish  all  with  employment  that  is 
interesting  to  them  and  at  the  same  time  conducive  to 
their  highest  mental  and  moral  development.  To  keep 
the  imps  of  mischief  away,  put  the  angel  of  business  on 
guard.  This  is  the  Pestalozzian  idea.  Hear  what  this 
great  pioneer  of  education  had  to  say  on  this  subject: 
"  If  from  the  imperfection  of  his  reasoning  powers,  or 
his  want  of  knowledge  of  facts,  the  child  is  not  able  to 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  4.". 

lenter  into  the  sense  or  follow  the  chain  of  ideas;  if  he  is 
made  to  repeat  what  to  him  is  sound  without  sense,  it  is 
not  strange  that  he  becomes  restless  and  disobedient." 
The  great  mistake  of  too  manv  teachers  is  that  they 
expect  too  much  of  children.  They  proceed  too  much 
on  the  presumption  that  a  child  has  the  mind  of  a  man 
and  will  be  interested  in  abstract  subjects.  You  must 
not  only  furnish  him  something  to  do,  but  it  must  be 
something  he  can  do  and  will  like  to  do.  Then  he  will 
have  business  and  will  have  no  time  nor  inclination  for 
mischief.  Nothing  is  naturally  more  active  than  the 
human  mind,  and  especially  the  mind  of  a  child.  It 
craves  and  -nvks  after  knowledge.  If  not  properlv 
directed  it  seeks  after  the  bad  as  well  as  after  the  good, 
and  we  are  most  of  us  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  more 
apt  to  seek  after  the  bail.  Place  a  child  in  a  church 
during  a  sermon  and  watch  his  actions,  and  by  recalling 
our  own  experience  when  a  child  we  can  easily  imagine 
his  thoughts.  lie  is  not  interested  in  the  sermon  because 
he  can  not  understand  it.  He  soon  grows  tired  seeing 
the  people  and  he  shifts  his  position  a  hundred  times, 
counts  the  panes  of  glass  in  the  windows,  looks  at  the 
ceiling  and  out  the  window  and  tries  every  possible 
way  to  interest  himself  except  to  get  into  downright 
mischief,  which  he  longs  to  do,  and  would  do,  were  it 
not  for  parental  restraint  or  the  awe  of  the  place  and 
the  restraint  of  the  people  around  him.  A  child  goes 
to  school  and  is  placed  on  a  seat  with  others  of  like 
disp  OS  and  like  rest'less  minds.       There   is   not   the 

awe  of  a  church  nor  dread  of  parents''  frown  nor 
dignity  of  numerous  older  heads  to  restrain  him.  lie  is 
assigned  a  lesson  which  in  great  part  may  as  well  be 


±6  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

for  all  he  can  understand  of  it,  a  portion  of  Homer's 
Illiad  in  the  original  Greek.  Can  you  expect  anything 
else  than  mischief  from  the  child,  especially  if  he  has 
an  active  mind?  There  are  some  children  so  dull  and 
stupid  that  they  never  give  the  teacher  any  trouble,  and 
when  grown  up  will  never  agitate  the  world.  It  is  from 
the  child  which,  if  not  furnished  with  employment,  would 
fall  into  mischief  that  the  world  must  expect  its  "  coming 
man." 

Remember  then,  teacher,  that  here  is  where  vou  must 
begin  to  lay  your  foundation  of  government.  This  is 
the  solid  rock  on  which  you  must  build.  If  you  succeed 
perfectly  in  this  you  will  have  but  little  else  to  do. 
With  a  large  school  vou  can  not  succeed  perfectly  in 
keeping  all  employed,  but  you  should  do  all  you  can 
toward  this  end. 

The  teacher  should  teach  pupils  to  govern  themselves, 
and  only  when  his  best  endeavors  to  this  end  fail  should 
he  resort  to  coercive  measures.  Were  children  pro- 
perly trained  from  infancy  up  there  would  never  be  any 
need  of  force  in  governing  them.  But  the  teacher  has 
not  had  the  charge  of  these  children  from  infancy,  and 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  if  he  had  had  them  in  charge  he 
would  have  failed  to  train  them  properly.  Consequently, 
considering  the  frailties  of  human  nature,  force  some- 
times becomes  a  necessity  in  the  managing  of  youth. 

A  Republican  or  Democratic  form  of  government  is 
undoubtedly  the  best  for  Nations  or  communities,  and, 
to  a  certain  extent,  it  is  best  in  the  school-room;  but 
there  must  be  a  slight  savoring  of  despotism.  The 
teacher  should  be,  to  some  extent,  the  autocrat  of  the 
school-room.      He  should  endeavor  to  lay  before  the 


in    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  J  i 

school  a  few  fundamental  principles  of  government,  and 
as  far  as  possible,  secure  the  voice  of  the  majority  in 
enacting  and  enforcing  requirements.  But  there  may 
be  cases  where  it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  use  his 
own  mind  without  appealing  to  the  pupils  for  sanction. 
I  [e  should  explain  to  them  at  the  first  that  as  all  came 
there  to  be  instructed,  it  is  to  the  highest  interest  of  all 
that  the  teacher's  whole  time  should  be  spent  in  teaching, 
and  that  if  every  one  would  attend  only  to  the  work 
necessary  to  acquire  knowledge,  there  would  be  no 
necessity  for  government. 

The  teacher,  while  he  does  not  make  a  show  of 
watching  his  pupils,  should  ever  he  on  the  alert  to  detect 
departures  from  propriety  and  at  once  check  them.  A 
firm  stand  at  the  beginning  is  of  great  importance.  One 
evil  act  if  permitted  to  pass  unnoticed  will  be  followed 
Iw  a  score.  A  rather  rigid  discipline  at  first  will  pre- 
vent tin.-  necessity  of  close  watching  afterward. 

The  teacher  need  say  but  little  about    government. 

\  system  of  rules  laid  down  is  of  more  harm  than  good. 

The  general  principle,  D  ■  Right  is  all  the  rule  necessary. 

Let  the  teacher  be  orderly  and  systematic  in  everything 

he  undertakes  and  he  will  thus  unconsciously  teach  order 
and  system  t<>  his  pupils. 

Do  n<>t  attempt  to  keep  a  school  as  still  as  a  church  is 

when  the  minister  is  praying.     The  performance  of  the 

actual  duties  of  the  school-room,  if  carried  on  in  an 
enthusiastic    manner,  can   not    he    without    more  or   less 

noise.  But  you  should  endeavor  to  check  unnecessary 
noise.    Do  not  expeel  too  much  of  the  pupils.    Consider 

that  forty  pupils  will  make  more  noise  than  twenty,  and 
if  any  one  points  you  to  a  quiet  school,  ask  how  many 


48  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

pupils  there  are.  I  have  seen  teachers  who  kept  forty 
and  fifty  pupils  almost  as  still  as  death,  but  I  never  saw 
very  much  real  progress  made  in  studies  under  such 
teachers.  They  were  a  success  so  far  as  keeping  a 
school  quiet,  was  concerned,  and  that  was  all.  Shall 
whispering  be  suppressed?  Yes,  and  no.  If  it  is  injur- 
ing the  school,  suppress  as  far  as  you  can.  Some  claim 
thev  can  suppress  it  entirely,  but  I  do  not  believe  it.  It 
is  one  of  the  impossibilities,  especially  if  you  do  any 
teaching  at  the  same  time.  If  a  school  is  small  and  pu- 
pils study  and  recite  well,  I  can  not  see  what  harm  there 
can  be  in  whispering  a  little.  If  a  pupil  has  plenty  of 
work  to  do  he  will  not  spend  much  time  in  whispering. 
If  a  school  is  large  and  the  pupils  crowded,  a  great  deal 
of  confusion  will  result  if  each  pupil  only  whispers  a 
little.  In  such  cases  the  teacher  will  explain  the  neces- 
sity of  refraining  from  whispering  and  do  all  in  his  power 
to  check  it.  He  may  find  it  necessary  to  deprive  those 
who  persist  in  this  practice  of  a  part  of  their  recesses. 
With  many  merely  calling  their  attention  to  the  fact  will 
be  all  that  is  necessary.  With  some  it  will  have  a  good 
effect  to  write  their  names  on  the  black-board.  All  this 
should  be  done  not  so  much  as  a  punishment,  but  as  a 
reminder  of  the  fact  that  they  are  disturbing  the  school, 
and  the  teacher  should  so  explain.  Extreme  cases  may 
require  extreme  remedies,  and  I  leave  the  teacher  to 
devise  his  own  mode  of  punishment. 

As  was  said  in  the  beginning  of  this  section,  if  all  are 
employed  very  little  in  the  way  of  government  will  be 
necessary.  It  behooves  the  teacher,  therefore,  to  devise 
ways  and  means  to  keep  all  from  the  largest  to  the 
smallest  employed  profitably  and  pleasurably.     He  who 


IN    CO!  NTR1     S<  HOOLS.  49 

succeeds  best  in  this  will  succeed  best  in  governing  his 

school.  Let  me  make  a  few  suggestions  in  this  matter. 
With  large  pupils  the  question  of  employment  will  not 
be  a  difficult  one.  Provide  plenty  of  written  work  in 
each  of  the  branches  they  pursue  and  by  properly  con- 
ducted recitations  and  judicious  assignment  of  lessons, 
all  the  older  pupils  will  be  kept  properly  employed.  If 
any  wide-awake,  active  boys  or  girls  are  well  up  with 
their  lessons  it  will  not  be  improper  to  allow  them  to 
read  some  book  or  paper  in  school  hours.  Many  a 
mischievously  inclined  bov  may  be  diverted  from  the 
mischief  he  would  fall  into,  by  simply  requesting-  him  to 
bring  an  armful  of  wood,  a  bucket  of  coal,  or  a  pail  of 
water.  Some  pupils  are  naturally  so  full  of  life,  that 
unless  they  are  employed  constantly,  they  will  naturally 
fall  into  mischief.  Such  children  are  sometimes  the 
brightest  in  the  school.  Their  surplus  energies  need 
only  to  be  directed  in  the  right  channel.  Like  the  loco- 
motive, thev  are  a  power  for  good  so  long  as  kept  on 
the  track,  but  let  them  get  off  the  track,  and  they  are  a 
power  for  mischief.  Such  pupils  may  be  reque  -ted  to 
write  their  spelling  or  reading  lessons,  or  place  the  solu- 
tion of  an  example  on  the  blackboard.  I  do  not  like  to 
see  a  child  who  has  not  enough  energy  about  him  to 

mischief.     Tin-  teacher  will  be   ever  on   the   watch 

for  something  useful  to  act  as  a  safety  valve  for  such 
vivacious  pupils.     There  is  a  point  worth  thinking  of 
right  here, teachers, a  lead, which  if  followed,  will  yield 
rich  results  in  the  way  of  managing  Mich   pupils, 
pp.  45  and   \'    . 

No  pupil, old  or  young, should  come  to  school  with- 
out a  slate.      The  teacher  should   attend  to  this   matter, 
4 


50  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

and  if  he  cannot  induce  parents  to  purchase  slates,  it  will 
pay  him  in  the  way  of  securing  order  in  the  school-room, 
to  buy  them,  and  loan  them  to  the  pupils.  A  little  talk 
with  the  parents  in  regard  to  the  matter,  will,  however, 
usually  secure  them.  There  is  no  one  thing  that  will  aid 
so  much  in  keeping  pupils  occupied  as  slates.  The  read- 
ing and  spelling  classes  will  find  them  a  necessity  in  writ- 
ing or  printing  their  spelling  lists,  and  very  young  pupils, 
in  drawing,  printing  letters,  and  making  figures.  The 
teacher  should  keep  the  young  pupils  busy  with  slates 
and  blocks.  Simple  drawing  lessons  should  be  placed 
on  the  blackboard,  such  as  any  teacher  can  draw,  wheth- 
er he  has  ever  studied  drawing  or  not,  as  squares,  tri- 
angles, rectangles,  parallel  lines,  stars,  boxes,  the  simple 
outline  of  a  house,  a  barrel,  a  cup,  &c.  Blocks  are  an- 
other means  of  government.  Let  the  teacher  go  to  some 
mechanic's  shop,  and  if  he  has  ordinary  ingenuity,  he  can, 
out  of  a  few  pieces  of  pine  board,  make  a  set  of  blocks 
which  can  be  used  by  both  small  and  large  pupils;  by 
small  pupils  to  play  with,  and  by  large  ones  to  repre- 
sent square  and  cube  root,  mensuration  of  solids,  &c. 
Let  him  make  a  cube,  to  illustrate  cube  root,  a  pyramid, 
a  triangular  prism,  a  parallelopiped,  a  cylinder,  a  cone, 
&c.  Also,  a  number  of  blocks  in  the  shape  and  propor- 
tion of  bricks,  but  they  need  not  be  more  than  three 
inches  in  length.  If  the  teacher  cannot  make  these  him- 
self, it  will  cost  but  a  trifle  to  get  a  mechanic  to  make 
them.  Very  young  pupils  can  be  kept  employed  for 
hours  in  building  houses,  &c,  with  these  blocks.  To 
prevent  making  noise,  by  the  falling  of  the  blocks  on  the 
desk,  I  have  sometimes  spread  a  shawl  or  a  couple  of 
newspapers  over  the  desk.     Blocks  with  the  alphabet 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  51 

can  be  purchased  for  a  small  sum,  and  will  be  very  con- 
venient and  useful. 

During  warm  weather  tin-  wry  young  pupils  should 
be  allowed  to  play  out  of  doors  after  they  have  recited 
their  lessons  and  practiced  for  a  few  minutes  with  slates, 
but  in  winter  this  can  not  be,  and  some  means  must  be 
used  to  keep  them  employed.  They  may  he  allowed 
to  draw  and  print  on  the  black-board  as  an  occasional 
exercise  for  a  change.  Children  are  generally  fond  of 
marking  with  chalk.  Every  school-house  should  be 
provided  with  plenty  of  black-board.     (See  p.  60 ). 

Pupils  get  tired  sitting  still  and  thus  grow  restless. 
For  this  reason  I  have  provided  in  the  programme  inter- 
vals of  live  minutes  which  I  have  denominated  "  Rest" 
Rest  is  not  necessarily  absolute  cessation  from  activity. 
Rest  is  only  change.  These  intervals  may  be  used  in 
various  ways.  To  cheek  whispering  I  have  given  these 
five-minute  intervals  for  that  purpose,  allowing  the 
pupils  to  move  about  the  room  but  not  permitting  them 
to  leave  it  nor  to  indulge  in  boisterous  play,  but  that 
they  may  stretch  their  limbs  and  have  a  few  minutes  for 
conversation.      These   intervals   may   be   used   in  giving 

calisthenic  exercises,  if  thought  proper,  or  the  teacher 

may  give  oral  drills  to  the  whole  school  on  some  subject 

of  natural  science,  or  read  or  relate  a  story,  or  sometimes 

it  is  necessary  to  talk  to  tin-  whole  school  on  some  mat- 
ter pertaining  to  government,  or   about   something   that 

has  occurred  in  school.     I  would  not  have  any  set  pro- 
gramme h>r  these  intervals,  but  OCCUpy  them  sometimes 

in  one  way  and  sometimes  in   another.       Variety   is   the 

spice  of  life  and  we  cannot   get   along   without   it.      If  a 
visitor    enters   your   school    do   not   interrupt,    the    usual 


52  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

course  of  your  work  but  adhere  strictly  to  the  program- 
me, and  when  the  time  for  "  Rest "  comes  then  you  may 
ask  him  to  talk  to  your  school  or  spend  the  five  xTiinutes 
in  talking  to  him. 

The  five  minutes  in  the  morning  denominated  "  Gen- 
eral  Exercise,"  may  be  also  used  in  various  ways. 
Exercises  may  be  given  which  will  go  far  towards 
securing  punctual  attendance.  Read  a  portion  of  some 
interesting  story  each  morning,  always  leaving  off  in  an 
interesting  place,  or  give  short  lectures  on  some  scien- 
tific subject,  or  the  time  may  be  devoted  to  matters  of 
business  as  announcing  special  lessons,  arranging  pupils 
seats  or  providing  for  a  new  pupil. 

A  strict  attention  to  these  seemingly  small  matters 
will  go  far  towards  securing  good  order  in  school. 

Very  small  pupils  should  not  spend  the  whole  day  in 
school,  but  as  this  is  a  matter  to  be  settled  between  the 
teacher  and  parents,  I  can  only  ask  the  teacher  to  try 
and  make  such  arrangements  with  parents  so  that  the 
small  pupils  can  be  dismissed  an  hour  or  two  before  the 
rest.  Some  parents  will  even  object  to  allowing  small 
pupils  to  play  out  of  doors  during  school  hours,  but  if 
this  matter  is  explained  by  the  teacher  no  trouble  will 
ensue,  and  if  they  are  consulted  in  reference  to  sending 
small  pupils  home  the  matter  can  generally  be  arranged. 
The  only  objection  to  this  is  in  the  fact  that  some  child- 
ren have  a  long  way  to  go  to  school,  and  very  small 
children  need  the  company  and  protection  of  their  older 
brothers  and  sisters. 

There  is  no  sense  nor  propriety  in  keeping  small 
children  a  whole  day  in  school.  It  is  imposing  too 
much  upon  the  teacher  of  an  ungraded  school.     He  is 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  53 

obliged  to  teach  everything  from  the  Alphabet  to  Alge- 
bra and  manage  all  ages  from  five  years  old  to  twenty, 
and  I  do  not  see  the  need  of  keeping  the  little  ones  con- 
fined several  hours  longer  than  is  necessary  for  their 
instruction.  Therefore,  every  teacher  should  try  to 
make  such  arrangements  with  school  boards  and  parents 
as  will  remedy  this  matter. 

To  recapitulate  the  matter  of  government: 

1.  Let  the  teacher  teach  well. 

2.  Let  him  set  an  example  of  order  and  system  by 
being  orderly  and  systematic  himself. 

3.  Let  him  provide  means  to  keep  all  profitably  and 
pleasantly  employed. 

4.  Let  him  secure  the  aid  of  parents  and  school 
h<>. nils  and  work  in  harmony  with  them. 

>.      Let  him  he  calm,  watchful  and  linn. 

I  can  not  forbear  closing  this  chapter  with  an  extract 
from  Herbert  Spencer:  "  The  independent  English  boy 
is  father  of  the  independent  English  man;  and  you  can- 
not have  the  last  without  the  first.  German  teachers 
say  that  they  had  rather  manage  a  dozen  German  boys 
than  one  English  one.  Shall  we,  therefore,  wish  that 
our  bovs  had  tin-  manageableness  of  the  German  ones, 

and  with  it  the  submissiveness  and   political   serfdom  of 

adult  Germans?  Or.  shall  we  not  rather  tolerate  in  our 
bovs  those  feelings  which  make  them  free  men,  and 
moilify  our  methods  accordingly?"  What  Spencer  says 
.■I  the  English  h<>\  can  only  be  more  emphatically  said 
of  the  American  boy.     That  independent  spirit  which 

will  not  take  ofl   the   hat  to  a    Prince   sooner   than   to   a 

beggar,  requires  a  different  kind  of  governmenl  from 
that  necessary  for  that  cringing,  servile  submissivenett 


54  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

which  characterizes  too  many  of  the  Old  World  inhabi- 
tants. 

As  self-government  prevails  in  our  Nation,  so  it 
should  prevail  in  the  family  and  school.  If  properly 
taught  here  it  will  be  easy  there,  and  we  need  not  fear 
a  downfall  of  our  Republic  so  long  as  the  principles  on 
which  it  is  based  are  taught  in  the  family  and  school. 
If  it  is  high-minded  men  who  constitute  a  state,  it  is  the 
teacher's  duty  to  make  high-minded  men  out  of  the  boys 
under  his  control,  and  thus  be  the  greatest  benefactor 
of  the  race.  Ruskin  told  his  country-men  to  set  their 
minds  upon  multiplying  Englishmen.  Let  us  set  our 
minds  upon  multiplying  Americans.  The  teacher  of 
the  country  school  is  one  of  the  greatest  factors  in  this 
work. 


CHAPTER    III. 


THE    SCHOOL     HOUSE. 

I.  SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE. 

Not  one-half  enough  money  is  expended  in  the  con- 
struction of  school-houses,  and  much  that  is  expended  is 
misdirected  and  the  n-sult  is  that  in  a  land  of  wealth 
where  costly  residences,  fine  court-houses  and  peniten- 
tiaries, and  elegant  churches  abound  the  great  majority 
of  the  school  buildings  are  miserable  shanties,  barely 

Sufficient  to  shelter  the  inmates  from  the  weather,  with- 
out yards  or  trees,  or  anything  which  makes  a  home 
desirable.  The  school-house  is  not  exactly  a  home,  but 
it  should  be  just  as  attractive  a  place.  Our  cities,  as  a 
rule,  it  is  true,  contain  line  school-houses  and  then-  are, 
also,  some  very  neat,  well-arranged  and  attractive 
school-houses  in  the  country,  but  it  is  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule.  Four  bar-/  walls  of  wood.  Stone 
or  brick,  with  desks  and  table  for  the  teacher,  a  rusty 
stove  anil  rustier  walls  with  a  greasy  black-board  about 


56  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

three  by  four  feet  in  dimensions,  will  pretty  accurately 
describe  the  inside  of  the  majority  of  country  school- 
houses,  at  least,  those  in  the  Central  and  Western 
States. 

Our  free  school  system  is  a  grand  and  glorious  thing, 
and  much  money  is  spent  for  the  sustenance  of  schools; 
yet  when  we  consider  the  money  spent  for  useless  pur- 
poses it  is  but  a  trifle.  The  annual  expenditure  in  the 
United  States  for  sites,  buildings,  furniture,  libraries  and 
apparatus  is  only  a  little  over  ten  million  dollars.  Com- 
pare this  with  the  cost  of  punishing  crime,  or  with  the 
amount  annually  expended  for  liquors  and  tobacco. 
The  people  can  be  taxed  to  no  better  purpose,  certainly, 
than  that  of  educating  their  children.  It  is  a  fact  that 
as  education  of  the  masses  increases,  crime  and  its  con- 
sequences decreases;  consequently  it  is  a  good  invest- 
ment, for  it  is  a  saving  to  the  country  to  the  amount 
necessary  to  punish  crime  as  well  as  the  loss  of  property 
consequent  upon  crime.  It  is  also  true  that  the  more 
money  expended  by  the  State  for  the  purpose  of  main- 
taining schools  the  fewer  illiterate  persons  there  are. 
The  following  statistics,  compiled  from  official  sources,, 
will  show  this: 

Iowa,  for  every  one  of  her  population  expends  $3.60, 
and  one  out  of  every  49  of  her  population  over  ten  years 
of  age  can  not  read. 

Tennessee,  for  every  one  of  her  population  expends  55 
cents,  and  one  out  of  every  four  of  her  population  over 
ten  years  of  age  can  not  read.  It  may  be  objected  that 
as  Tennessee  has  a  large  Negro  population,  the  com- 


IN   COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  57 

parison  is  unfair.     Take,  then,  the  State  of  New  Jersey 

instead. 

New  Jersey,  for  every  one  of  her  population  expends 
$2.37,  and  one  out  of  every  27  of  her  population  over 
ten  years  of  age  can  not  read. 

Thus  you  may  figure  up  the  statistics  of  any  State 
and  find  that  the  more  money  expended  for  schools  the 
less  ignorance  among  the  people. 

It  frequently  happens  that  a  sufficient  sum  of  money 
is  appropriated  for  buildings  and  apparatus  but  so  mis- 
directed that  it  fails  to  answer  any  good  purpose. 

Practical  teachers  are  rarely  consulted  when  a  country 
school-lvuise  is  to  be  built.  I  have  seen  some  very  costly 
buildings  that  were  miserable  failures  as  school-houses. 
One  third  less  money  would  have  built  better  houses 
for  the  purpose,  if  it  had  been  properly  applied.  For 
example,  I  have  one  in  mind  just  now  which  cost  a  large 
Bum  of  money.      There  were  two  small   ante-rooms,  so 

arranged  that  they  ware  of  little  practical  use,andtocon- 

eeal  the  w  ant  of  svmmetrv.  caused  by  thus  arranging  the 

rooms,  a  blind  window  was  made  between  the  entries  to 
them.  A  belfry  costing  a  large  sum.  and  made-  more 
for  ornament,  though  not  very  ornamental,  than  for  use. 

was  placed  on  the  top.  An  attempt  was  made  to  con- 
struct a  blackboard  in  the  wall,  but  it  was  a  failure,  from 

want  ot  a  little  know  ledge,  and  consequently,  was  never 

u^ed  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  the  duty  of  teachers,  at  the  risk  even  of  being 
thought  meddlesome,  to  instruct  school    boards    when 


"58  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

new  houses  are  to  be  built,  and  see  that  what  money  is 
expended  is  used  to  the  best  purpose.  But  how  can 
teachers  instruct  others  unless  they  are  themselves  in- 
structed in  this  matter?  The  question  of  school  archi- 
tecture is  one  of  great  importance,  and  not  enough  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  it  by  teachers.  In  the  first  place,  then, 
teacher,  urge  a  sufficient  expenditure,  and  then  see  that 
it  is  properly  applied. 

I  give  here  a  few  suggestions  as  to  how  I  think  coun- 
try school-houses  should  be  constructed: 

i.  Location.  As  the  distance  to  be  traversed  by  the 
*  pupils  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  not  a  very  wide 
latitude  of  choice  is  allowable  in  this  respect,  but  when 
possible,  a  high  ground  should  be  chosen,  near  a  natural 
forest,  and  far  enough  away  from  the  public  highway  to 
be  free  from  the  noise,  dust  and  danger  of  passing  ve- 
hicles. How  often  do  we  see  these  points  disregarded. 
Country  school-houses  are  often  "  stuck  in  a  mud  hole  " 
and  so  close  to  the  road  side  that  passing  vehicles  may 
rub  against  their  sides. 

2.  Surroundings.  Land  is  not  excessively  dear  in 
this  country  and  there  can  be  no  excuse  for  not  having 
ample  grounds  in  connection  with  the  school-house. 
There  should  not  in  the  Western  States  be  less  than  two 
acres.  In  the  older  States  where  land  is  now  higher, 
perhaps  a  less  space  may  be  all  that  can  be  expected. 
The  ground  should  be  enclosed  with  a  neat  fence,  and 
if  not  naturally  furnished  with  trees  the  more  hardy 
kinds  of  forest  trees  should  be  planted,  not  in  straight 
rows  but  in  groups  as  they  grow  naturally,  leaving  a 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  ;.;. 

large  space  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  house,  for  a 
play-ground  for  ball  and  such  games  as  require  open 
ground.  All  out  buildings  should  be  at  the  back  of  the 
school-house  some  distance  and  screened  by  trees.  I 
will  say  nothing  of  laying  off  flower  beds  and  planting 
shrubbery,  though  intensely  desirable,  as  I  fear  we  are 
not  quite  sufficiently  civilized  for  that,  especially  in  tin 
West. 

3.  Size.  There  is  little  danger  of  getting  a  school- 
house  too  large.  I  have  yet  to  meet  with  a  country 
school-house  too  large  for  the  number  of  pupils.  Here 
comes  in  the  matter  of  expense,  and  here  is  where 
teachers  must  tight  the  parsimony  that  will  crowd  a 
number  of  children  together  like  cattle  in  a  pen. 

A  school-house  to  accommodate  6b  pupils  should  not 
be  less  than  32  by  40  feet  in  dimensions  and  include  a 
hall  and  two  ante-rooms.  This  will  give  ample  room 
fur  desks,  recitation  seats,  platform  and  aisles,  and  desks 
need  not  be  placed  too  close  to  the  Stove.  The  ceiling 
should  be  at  least  10  feet  high.  For  a  smaller  school 
the  building  nerd  not  be  quite  so  large,  perhaps  in  some 
districts  not  more  than  26  by  34  feet. 

4.  Plan.  I  submit  the  following  plan  for  a  country 
school-house,  which  is  calculated  to  seal  sixty-two  pupils, 

and   give   all   ample   accommodations,  hoping   it    will,  a! 

at  least,  prove  suggestive.  For  convenience  in  study- 
ing Geography  as  well  as  for  other  reasons  tin-  pupils 

should  be  .seated  facing  tin-  north,  the  door  entering  at 
the  south  and  tin-  north  a  dead  wall,  windows  being  on 
the  east  and  west  sides: 


60 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

N  ' 


IO 

6 


10 
6 


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5- 


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1.  Outside  Door. 

2.  Inside  Door. 

3.  Door  to  Clothes  Room. 

4.  Door  to  Teacher's  Room, 
j.  Windows. 

6.  Platform  10  inches. 


9- 
10. 
11. 

12. 


Teacher's  Desk. 
Stove. 

Recitation  Seats. 
Blackboards. 
Desks  for  62  Pupils. 
Movable  Seats. 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  •'•  I 

TIk-  small  room  <>n  the  right  of  the  hall  can  be  used 
for  hanging  clothes,  keeping  dinner  baskets,  a  small 
supply  of  fuel,  kindlings,  &c.  The  room  on  the  left  I 
have  denominated  the  teacher's  room,  but  may  be  used 

for  a  variety  of  purposes.  A  school  library  may  be 
kept  here,  also  all  apparatus  when  not  in  use,  and  if  oc- 
casion requires  it  may  be  used  as  a  recitation  room. 
The  stove,  it  will  be  observed,  is  far  enough  from  any 
pupil's  desk  and  opposite  and  near  to  the  door,  the  ad- 
vantage of  which  will  be  seen  when  we  come  to  speak 
of  ventilation.  A  large  black-board  can  be  made  the 
full  width  of  the  room  at  the  north  end  and  facing  the 
school,  while  smaller  black-boards  can  be  made  between 
the  windows.  The  windows  are  all  at  the  sides,  an  ar- 
rangement better  suited  to  the  eves  of  the  pupils  than. if 
facing  them.  They  should  be  made  high  so  that  the 
light  will  shine  rather  down  on  the  pupils.  The  aisles 
should  be  two  feet  or  more  in  width. 

Such  a  building  will  cost  a  little  more  than  such  as 
are  usually  built,  but  when  once  built  will  last  just  as 
long  as  a  more  contracted  structure  and  will  certainly 
pay  in  an  educational  sense. 

;.  Construction  and  Material.  School-houses  may 
be  made  of  wood,  stone,  brick  or  concrete,  but  of  what- 
ever material,  they  should  be  well  constructed  and  the 
material  should  be  of  the  best  quality  of  the  kind.  No 
bungling  workmen  should  have  the  contract  for  build- 
in;/. 

The  great  objection  to  targe  rooms  with  high  ceilings 

is  that  they   an-   inclined   to  echo   and   increase   sounds. 

This  may  be  obviated  in  a  great  measure  by  so  con- 
structing the  floor  as  to  deaden  the  sound.     Architects 


62  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

can  accomplish  this  and  it  should  be  a  part  of  the 
specifications. 

Floors  should  be  made  of  hard  wood,  the  boards 
being  narrow  and  well  joined  so  as  not  to  warp.  The 
room  should  be  ceiled  with  boards  to  a  height  of 
three  or  four  feet  all  around.  The  windows  should 
have  shutters  on  the  outside. 

Black-boards  should  be  made  in  the  wall.  Per- 
haps the  best  is  made  by  mixing  lampblack  and  flour 
of  emery  with  plaster  of  Paris  and  put  on  as  the  last 
coat  of  plastering,  the  same  as  a  hard  finish. 

It  would  lessen  the  expense  somewhat  by  setting 
the  roof  down  lower  and  making  the  ceiling-  arched 
or  higher  in  the  middle  than  at  the  sides.  Thus  at  a 
less  expense  for  material  would  be  gained  the  same 
or  greater  amount  of  space. 

II.     APPARATUS. 

Many  school-houses  in  this  country  have  not  one 
piece  of  apparatus,  not  even  a  wall  map.  This  is  a 
deplorable  state  of  affairs,  and  I  hope  it  will  not  al- 
ways be  thus.  Xow,  I  am  not  going  to  advocate  the 
purchasing  of  costly  apparatus.  There  is  no  need  of 
it;  but  there  are  a  few  articles  which  no  school  board 
should  neglect  to  furnish.  Among  these  are  a  good 
set  of  wall  maps,  a  small  globe,  an  unabridged  dic- 
tionary, and  charts  for  teaching  penmanship  and  pri- 
mary reading.  Besides  these  there  might  be  an  en- 
cyclopedia of  general  information,  a  tellurian  to  illus- 
trate mathematical  geograph}*,  a  set  of  mathematical 
blocks,  set  of  alphabet  blocks,  a  numeral  frame,  a 
number  of  small  rulers  with  scale  of  inches  marked, 


IN    COUNTRY    8CHOOL8.  63 

and  a  yard  stick.  Some  of  these  may  be  easily  made 
by  the  teacher. 

According  to  Webster's  definition  of  apparal  us,  viz : 
"Things  provided  as  means  to  some  end,"  it  will  not 
be  improper  to  include  a  library  as  among  the  appa- 
ratus ot'  a  school.  I  have  already  mentioned  two 
u.-rks  of  reference,  but  there  are  many  books  not 
only  valuable  for  reference  but  for  the  use  of  the 
children  and  youth  of  our  country  schools.  It  seems 
to  me  that  with  a  school-house  as  I  have  here  de- 
scribed, a  library  should,  be  started.  I  hope  that  the 
day  is  not  far  distant  when  each  country  school-house 
will  be  constructed  on  some  similar  plan  to  the  one 
described,  and  in  the  teacher's  room  there  will  be  a 
book  case  well  filled  with  reading  matter  and  works 
of  reference  suitable  to  the  young  and  for  the  benefit 
of  the  teacher.  Such  a  library  can  be  kept  under 
lock  and  key  and  the  teacher  constituted  a  librarian, 
books  <»nly  to  be  had  during  session  of  the  school. 
The  legislature  of  Ohio  once  voted  a  school  library 
to  be  kept  in  each  district,  and  the  books  to  be  ex- 
changed periodically.  It  was  only  a  few  years  until 
the  book-  were  scattered  and  most  of  them  lost,  and 
finally  what  was  left  were  gathered  up  and  sold.  It 
does  Beem  to  me  thai  such  a  state  of  affairs  dor-  not 
argue  a  very  highly  civilized  state  of  society.     It'  men 

took  that  interest    in    the  education    of  their   children 

which  they  should  take,  such  would  m»t  be  the  case. 
Now,  1  do  think  that  it' each  district  would  furnish  its 
own  library,  and  Bchool  boards  would  Bee  to  it  that 

ihers  did   their  duty  as  librarian-  (and    it'  teachers 
were  alive  to  their  work   they  would   need  but   little 


64  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

watching),  a  great  revolution  in  the  state  of  society 
might  be  accomplished  in  a  few  years.  Certain  books, 
such  as  are  not  used  for  reference,  might  be  ex- 
changed from  one  district  to  another  at  certain  inter- 
vals, thus  keeping  up  new  interest.  The  school- 
house  should  be  the  literary  center  of  the  rural  com- 
munity. These  libraries  would  be  excellent  helps  to 
literary  societies  which  could  -be  held  at  the  school- 
house  during  winter  evenings. 

Public  exhibitions,  festivals,  etc.,  might  be  given, 
and  the  proceeds  devoted  to  purchasing  a  library  for 
the  school.  Other  apparatus  might  be  procured  in  a 
similar  manner. 

III.     VENTILATION. 

I  shall  not  occupy  space  in  speaking  of  the  evils  of 
badly  ventilated  rooms.  Every  person  of  intelligence 
knows  the  advantages  of  ventilation, 

A  room  is  well  ventilated  when  there  is  a  free  ac- 
cess of  fresh  air  and  a  free  exit  for  the  foul  air,  and 
when  no  one  is  exposed  to  cold  draughts.  The  bad 
effects  from  draughts  are  even  greater  evils  than 
breathing  impure  air.  The  majority,  in  fact  nearly 
.•ail,  country  school-houses  are  so  constructed  that  they 
can  not  be  ventilated  without  exposing  pupils  to  cold 
draughts  of  air.  If  a  window  is  raised  at  the  bottom 
the  cold  air  rushes  in  and  strikes  those  sitting  near 
it,  and  if  it  is  lowered  from  the  top  the  cold  air  falls 
down  on  the  heads  of  the  inmates. 

Air  that  has  been  inhaled  by  the  lungs  contains 
carbonic  acid  gas,  as  well  as  organic  matters  resulting 
from  the  waste  of  animal  tissue.     This  carbonic  acid 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS-  Do 

ua  heavier  than  common  air  when  cold,  but  when 
warmed  it  is  lighter  than  common  cool  air.  The  con- 
sequeuce  is  thai  when  exhaled  from  the  lun^s  it  rises, 
but  gradually  descends  as  it  becomes  cooled      If  an 

opening  is  made  near  the  top  of  the  room  it  will  pass 
out  readily,  provided  there  is  a  sufficient  opening  at 
the  bottom  to  admit  a  corresponding  amount  of  fresh 

air.  It'  there  is  no  admission  of  eool  air  from  below 
and  an  opening  mad.'  at  the  top  there  will  be  two 
currents  established  side  by  side,  one  of  cold  air  com- 
ing  in  ami  the  other  of  warm,  foul  air  passing  out. 
The  cold  air  will  fall  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  room 
and  force  the  wanner  air  up.  An  interest  "mil;-  experi- 
ment may  be  performed  by  the  teacher  to  illustrate 
tin-  principle  of  ventilation.  When  a  room  which 
contains  a  fire  lias  been  closed  for  some  time,  let  the 
door  be  opened  for  the  space  of  an  inch  or  more  and 
hold  a  Lighted  candle  opposite  the  crack.  If  it  is 
held  near  the  top  the  flame  will  be  blown  outward; 
if  near  the  bottom  it  will  be  blown  inward,  and  if 
near  the  middle  it  will  remain  steady,  showing  plainly 
the  direction  of  the  currents  of  air. 

As  a  simple  and  effective  means  of  ventilating  a 

school-room,    I    would    recommend    the    following: 

Make  a  wooden   Bpout,  Bay  Bis   inches  or  more   in 

diameter,  to  pass  from  beneath  the  stove  to  the  out- 

of  the  building,  under  the  tl  >or.     An  opening  is 

to  be  made  iii  the  floor  under  the  stove.  At  the  did 
of  the  room  farthest  from  the  stove  make  a  similar 
spout  to  extend  from  the  floor  to  the  roof,  with  open- 
:'  ga  at  the  top  and  bottom  and  in  the  middle,  with 
5 


66  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

slides  to  shut  when  necessary.  jSTow,  when  a  fire  is 
made  the  air  around  the  stove  becomes  heated,  and 
rising,  circulates  through  the  room  and  passes  out  at 
the  openings  in  the  upright  spout.  A  fresh  supply 
of  cold  air  is  drawn  through  the  tube  under  the  floor 
and  in  turn  becomes  heated  and  circulates  through 
the  room.  The  windows  and  doors  may  be  shut  per- 
fectly tight,  and  yet  there  will  be  good  ventilation. 

Heat  is  conducted  from  a  stove  through  a  room  in 
two  ways — by  convection  and  by  radiation.  By  the 
former  is  meant  that  the  air  in  immediate  contact 
with  the  stove  becomes  heated,  and  rising,  its  place  is 
supplied  by  cool  air,  which  goes  through  the  same 
process.  By  radiation  is  meant  that  heat  is  thrown 
off  from  the  stove  in  direct  ravs,  the  same  as  lisrht 
from  a  lamp.  To  prevent  this  heating  by  radiation 
some  device  must  be  applied,  because  those  sitting 
near  the  stove  °;et  too  warm,  while  those  at  a  distance 
may  suffer  with  cold.  A  piece  of  sheet-iron  or  tin 
should  be  placed  so  as  to  surround  the  stove  on  all 
sides,  except  top  and  bottom,  at  the  distance  of  four 
or  five  inches.  The  stove  should  always  stand  near 
the  door  of  the  room  to  receive  the  cool  air  when  the 
door  is  opened.  A  room  ventilated  and  warmed  as 
above  described  will  not  be  an  unhealthful  place  for 
human  beings. 

But  what  are  you  going  to  do,  teacher,  if  you  are 
obliged  to  teach  in  a  room  not  properly  ventilated? 
Rather  than  open  a  window  and  expose  some  pupil 
to  a  draught,  which  will  be  the  case  in  most  houses, 
open  doors  and  windows  wide  at  each  recess  and 
noon  and  allow  a  thorough   change  of  air.     When 


IN    COUNTRY    schools.  67 

pupils  arc  in  motion  the  draughts  will  not  hurt  them. 
Or  a  window  may  be  opened  and  the  opening  screened 
by  a  board  so  as  to  prevent  a  direct  draught.  If  the 
Stove  is  near  the  door,  as  it  should  he,  open  the  door 
a  little  way  to  admit  air,  provided  the  pupils  are  not 
bo  Beated  that  the  air  will  strike  them. 

An  attention  to  these  matters  will  often  prevent 
cases  of  colds  which  might  result  in  disease  producing 
death.  A  A^>k\  ill-ventilated  room  will  also  make 
restless  pupils,  and  government  will  be  more  difficult 
in  such  a  room.  The  teacher  is  responsible  in  great 
measure  for  the  health  and  comfort  of  his  pupils. 


PART  II— METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

CHAPTER   I. 

READING. 

To  be  a  good  reader  is  a  most  desirable  accomplish- 
ment. As  reading  is  taught  in  our  ungraded  schools 
we  can  not  say  it  is  a  success.  The  hesitation  and 
drawl  of  too  many  school  boys  and  the  sing-song 
tone  of,  alas,  too  many  ministers  are  simply  abomin- 
able. Yet  much  time  is  spent  in  all  our  schools  in  the 
acquisition  of  this  art.  The  results  should  be  more 
satisfactory. 

To  make  a  good  reader  it  requires,  first,  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  principles  of  elocution ;  second,  much 
practice. 

In  order  to  teach  the  principles  of  elocution,  the 
teacher  himself  should  have  a  knowledge  of  them. 
Too  many  teachers  are  wofully  deficient  in  this  re- 
spect. It  must  be  remembered  that  a  strict  observ- 
ance of  the  rules  for  articulation,  inflection,  accent 
and  emphasis,  pitch,  gesture,  etc.,  will  not  make  a  good 
reader  or  speaker.  He  should  enter  into  the  spirit 
and  meaning  of  the  author.  He  must  understand 
and  feel  what  he  reads  or  speaks.  The  rules  of  elo- 
cution have  many  exceptions ;  so  much  so  that  they 

(68) 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  69 

seem  arbitrary.  The  besl  orators  are  children  and 
Indians,  because  they  apeak  the  Language  of  nature, 
and  are  not  drilled  into  artificial  modes  of  expression 
by  unnatural  customs. 

• 

The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  improve  himself  in 
this  noble  art.  lie  should  practice  much,  reading 
aloud  and  declaiming,  at  the  same  time  studying  the 
principles  <»t'  elocution,  as  found  in  our  School  Read- 
ers. II.-  should  first  try  to  find  out  his  own  fault* 
and  Bet  himself  to  remedy  them.  If  he  finds  he  does 
nor  articulate  well,  he  should  practice  on  this  branch 
until  he  has  improved  his  enunciation.  In  the  same 
manner  let  him  correct,  by  drilling  himself,  any  other 
faults  of  expression  he  may  p —  ss.  Let  the  country 
teacher,  after  his  pupils  have  gone  home  in  the  even- 
ing,  read  and  declaim  to  the  empty  seats  for  half  an 
hour  each  day  the  lessons  in  the  Readers.  The  time 
thus  -pent  will  repay  him  many  fold.  It  will  elevate 
him  not  only  amon--  teachers,  hut  among  all  classes. 

It  is  expected  of  a  teacher,  above  all  others,  that 

he  should  ]m the  art  of  expressing  himself.    The 

American  people  are  a  nation  of  readers,  hut  there 
are  comparatively  few  good  readers  among  them.  It 
is  true  that  a  republic  is  the  l„  bI  calculated  to  develop 
oratory,  and  we  have  many  of  the  greatest  orators  in 
the  world,  yet  we  should  have  more  of  them  and  more 

who  -hould  he  above  mediocrity  in  this  respect.  It 
i-  the  duty  of  the  country  teacher  to  manufacture 
many  of  the  future  orators  of  America.  Let  him  lit 
himself  by  careful  study  and  constant  drill  for  this 
pur]  — . 

w  that   the  country  teacher   is   obliged   to   teach 


70  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

everything  from  A  B  C  to  Algebra,  it  is  not  to  be 
supposed  he  will  have  the  time  to  devote  to  the  sub- 
ject of  reading  which  the  teacher  of  a  graded  school 
can  have,  but  what  time  he  has  should  be  economized 
and  profitably  used.  The  time  devoted  to  each  class, 
of  course,  will  vary  with  the  number  of  branches 
taught  in  the  school,  the  number  of  pupils,  and,  per- 
haps, with  other  circumstances.  For  example,  in 
some  schools,  will  be  found  Algebra,  Physiology, 
History,  and,  perhaps,  two  grades  each  of  Grammar 
and  Geography,  while  in  other  schools  there  may  be 
neither  of  the  first  three,  and  only  one  class  each  in 
the  two  latter.  The  time,  therefore,  must  vary  with 
circumstances.     (See  p.  35.) 

Teaching  Beginners  to  Read. 

There  are  various  methods  in  vogue  for  teaching 
beginners  to  read.  Each  one  has  its  advocates,  who 
strenuously  hold  to  their  particular  methods,  just  as 
the  different  schools  of  medicine  or  the  different  de- 
nominations of  religious  believers  hold  to  their  re- 
spective  dogmas.  Now,  I  do  not  wish  to  be  behind 
the  times,  and  advise  my  readers  to  follow  a  method 
which  the  present  age  has  voted  down,  but  I  will  say 
that  I  have  some  serious  objections  to  following  exclu- 
si  vely  any  method  which  has  yet  been  invented.  There 
are  some  methods,  as  the  various  phonic  methods, 
which  in  theory  seem  to  be  just  the  thing,  and  the  en- 
thusiastic young  teacher  will  likely  be  carried  away 
by  the  specious  arguments  used  in  their  favor  by  some 
of  our  educators,  who,  having  watched  them  in  the 
quiet  of  their  study  rooms,  and  never  having  given 


IN     MMWTUY     B(   HOOLS.  71 

them  a  practical  test  in  the  school-room,  are  prepared 
to  denounce  any  one  as  an  old  fogy  <>r  an  ignoramus 
who  will  not  at  once  fall  in  love  with  them.  I  will 
Bay  here  that  I  have  personal  knowledge  of  at  least 
one  prominent  educator  who  is  an  ardent  advocate  of 
what  he  calls  the  phonetic  or  normal  method,  and 
who  has  never  taught  a  class  of  children  in  his  life. 

The  different  methods  may  be  enumerated  as  fol- 
lows: The  Alphabetic  Method)  the  Word  or  Webb 
M  "'"*7,  the  Phonic  Method.  Of  the  latter  there  are 
several  varieties. 

The  Alphabetic  Method  is  the  one  by  which  the  most 
of  US  perhaps  were  taught  and  the  one  which  is  in  use 
in  the  greater  number  of  country  schools  to-day.  It 
!<  no  explanation,  being  simply  the  teaching  of 
the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  the  com- 
bining of  them  into  words.  The  objection  mad.-  to  it. 
is  that  it  teaches  the  names  of  the  letters  only  and 
not  their  powers  and  sounds,  and  that  it  is  synthetic 
rather  than  analytic. 

'/'/,,  WordorWebb  Method  has  many  advocates.  By 
this  method  the  learner  is  taught  first  a  number  of 
words  as  wholes.     Objects  or  pictures  of  objects  are 

shown  to   the    pupils   and    they  are  taught   to   call  the 

words  which  represent  them  al  Bight.  Words  are  com- 
bined in  sentences  and  the  child  is  thus  taught  to  read 
before  be  knows  a  Bingle  letter.  The  letters  are  then, 
it  is  claimed,  learned  very  readily  by  separating  the 
words  into  their  component  letters.  Tie-  advantages 
claimed  for  this  method  over  the  former  are  thai  it  is 
analytn-  rather  than  synthetic,  and  that  it  can  be 
made  much  more  interesting  to  children,  words  rep- 


72  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

resenting  ideas  being  more  easily  grasjx  d  as  wholes 
than  letters,  which  are  but  arbitrary  signs. 

The  Phonic  Method  claims  superiority  over  the  oth- 
ers from  the  fact  that  as  our  alphabet  contains  only 
twenty-six  letters  to  represent  about  forty  sounds,  by 
teaching  the  sounds  of  the  letters  rather  than  their 
names,  the  many  difficulties  of  pronouncing  our  Ian-* 
guage  are  obviated.  As  before  stated  there  are  sev- 
eral varieties  of  the  Phonic  Method.  Some  have  tried 
to  overcome  the  difficulties  by  having  the  sounds  of 
the  letters  indicated  by  marks  over  or  under  them,  as 
they  are  in  the  dictionary.  Others  have  the  primers 
printed  representing  the  different  sounds  by  different 
styles  of  type,  and  others  still  by  using  different  char- 
acters for  each  sound. 

It  will  be  useless  to  discuss  here  these  different  meth- 
ods. I  have  only  briefly  described  them  that  the  teacher 
may  not  be  ignorant  of  them,  and  will  say  that  if  cir- 
cumstances permit  it  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  try 
the  new  methods  and  thus  be  able  to  decide  for  him- 
self. I  will  only  here  state  a  few  facts  concerning  the 
matter  of  teaching  beginners  in  country  schools,  and 
then  describe  the  method  I  have  used  with  the  great- 
est success. 

1.  A  great  many  children  learn  the  alphabet,  and 
some  to  spell  a  little,  before  they  are  sent  to  school. 

2.  The  country  teacher  will  find  in  many  schools 
only  one,  or  at  most  only  two  or  three  pupils,  who 
can  not  read  quite  well  in  the  First  Reader. 

3.  Children  love  to  put  things  together,  to  build 
up,  as  well  as  they  love  to  take  things  apart  or  tear 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  « -\ 

down.     Both  synthesis  and  analysis  should  be  ased 
in  teaching. 

4.  Children  learn  almost  unconsciously  the  sounds 
of  the  letters  by  naming  the  letters  in  familiar  words 
and  hearing  the  words  prouounced.  Tims  rarely  a 
child  m-eds  be  told  twice  that  e-a-t  Bpella  cat,  although 
the  sounds  of  the  letters,  as  heard  in  the  word,  are 
not  the  same  as  the  names  of  the  letters.  The  con- 
verse is  true  that  even  advanced  pupils  will  hesitate 
about  pronouncing  a  word  which  is  unfamiliar  to 
them,  even  though  it  be  a  word  of  very  easy  con- 
struction. 

5.  It  is  a  rather  difficult  matter  to  iret  a  child  to 
give  the  sound  ot*  a  letter  alone.  In  pronouncing 
w  >rda  he  gives  the  sounds  of  the  letters  combined, 
but  if  you  attempt  to  get  a  child  to  give,  say  the  short 
sound  of  </  in  corf,  you  will  find  he  does  not  Beem  to 

•mprehend  what  you  mean,  and  he  will  hesitate  to 
repeat  the  Bound  after  the  teacher. 

»;.  Tiie  fact  is,  the  child  has  been  accustomed  from 
infancy  t<»  pronouncing  words,  i.  e.  giving  the  sounds 
ot'  letters  combined  in  Buch  a  way  that  they  represent 
ideas  which  he  ha-  previously  acquired,  and  Bounds 
alone  and  letter-,  a!'. ip-  represent  to  his  mind  no  ideas 
at  all.  This  i-  why  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  teach 
the  alphabet  <>r  it-  Bounds. 

From  the  above  facts  and  from  my  own  experience 
I   have  found  the  following  method,  which  may  I 
termed  the  "  Eclectic  Meti  th«-  mosl  applicable 

in  a  COUUtrv  Pchool  : 


Be*   VVickernham's  Methods  of  fasti-action. 


74  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

If  no  suitable  books  or  charts  are  at  hand,  I  first 
show  the  class  a  simple  object,  as  a  box,  asking  its 
name.  Then  I  show  them  a  picture  of  a  box  in  a 
book,  or  draw  its  picture  on  the  black-board.  Then 
I  print  the  word  box  on  the  board.  Next  I  teach 
the  difference  between  an  object,  the  picture  of  an 
object  and  a  word  representing  the  object.  Then 
I  tell  them  the  word  is  made  up  of  letters,  asking 
them  how  many,  and  naming  for  them  each  letter, 
requiring  them  to  repeat  them  after  me.  Then  the 
word  is  pronounced  slowly,  so  as  to  somewhat  isolate 
each  sound.  Next  I  take  a  word  having  the  same 
letters,  or  part  of  them,  and  drill  in  the  same  manner. 
The  word  ox  would  appropriately  follow  box,  or  at 
follow  cat.  A  few  letters  are  learned  at  a  time;  they 
are  learned  by  using  them,  and  their  powers  are 
learned  at  the  same  time.  I  proceed  thus  until  all 
the  letters  are  learned  by  their  use  in  words  familiar 
and  easy  of  pronunciation.  As  soon  as  a  few  words 
are  learned  I  combine  them  into  sentences,  and  the 
pupils  read  them  until  they  are  quite  familiar  with 
them.  The  books  may  be  used  sometimes  when  they 
contain  pictures  and  words  which  are  applicable. 
Charts  containing  pictures  and  easy  words  will  be 
found  quite  convenient.  When  a  letter  is  learned  by 
the  pupil  he  may  be  shown  a  printed  page  and  exer- 
cised in  finding  out  the  letter  from  among  others. 
Blocks  with  the  letters  printed  on  them  are  very  use- 
ful. With  them  words  can  be  put  together  and  taken 
apart. 

An  ingenious  teacher  will  find  many  ways  of  vary- 
ing the  lessons  and  making  them  interesting.     Pu- 


IN    ColNTKY     SCHOOLS.  75 

pile,  while  learning  to  read,  m;iy  be  taught  some  ideas 
of  number.  This  will  vary  the  exercises  and  will  in- 
terest tin' pupils.  Theymaybe  required  to  count  the 
letters  in  a  word,  the  words  in  a  sentence,  the  win- 
dows in  the  room  or  the  number  of  panes  in  the  win- 
dows, etc.  There  are  Borne  letters  bo  nearly  alike  in 
form  that  pupil-  sometimes  find  it  difficult  to  distin- 
guish between  them,  for  instance  bandd  and  pandq. 
The  teacher  may  show  them  how  they  are  made,  that 
is  with  a  Btraight  line  and  a  curve  cither  at  top,  bot- 
tom, right  or  left  sides.  The  pupil  should  be  required 
to  form  the  letters  with  pencil  or  chalk.  This  will 
give  employment  and  help  tix  the  tonus  of  the  letters 
in  their  minds. 

As  soon  as  the  letters  are  learned,  exercise  should 
be  given  in  pronouncing  words,  and  continued  until 
they  can  call  a  great  Dumber  of  easy  and  familiar 
words  at  Bight.  Words  having  a  similarity  of  sound. 
provided  they  arc  Bimple  and  convey  ideas  which  the 
iiunil  is  already  familiar  with,  may  be  arranged  in 
columns  and  pronounced  first  down  the  column  and 
then  across  the  page.  In  this  way  words  arc  learned 
by  their  resemblance  to  each  other,  and  a  test  is  made 
by  pronouncing  across  the  column-. 

FIR8T    READER. 

As  Boon  as  the  child  has  learned  to  call  a  number 
of  words  readily  at  Bight,  attention  Bhould  be  paid  to 

the  following  points  : 

1.    Securi   Distinct  Articulation. 

The    teacher    -hoiild    see    that    the   child    opens    his 


76  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

mouth  property  and  articulates  every  sound  fully  and 
clearly.  Never  allow  a  word  to  pass  until  you  are 
satisfied  the  pupil  has  articulated  it  as  distinctly  as 
you  think  it  possible  for  him  to  do.  There  are  de- 
fects of  the  vocal  organs  which  may  be  remedied  in 
great  measure  by  practice,  but  it  is  not  expected  that 
a  teacher  should  devote  the  time  necessary  to  cure 
stammering  and  such  like  defects.  This  should  be 
done  at  home  or  in  schools  specially  for  that  purpose. 
"Words  of  the  lesson  difficult  of  pronunciation  may 
be  printed  on  the  black-board,  and  the  class  pronounce 
in  rotation  or  occasionally  in  concert.  Let  the  pupils 
spell  the  difficult  words  from  the  book  and  pronounce 
them.  Then  let  the  teacher  pronounce  them  and  the 
pupils  spell  them  without  looking  on  the  book.  Then 
let  them  read  to  a  period,  or  a  paragraph. 

2.    Secure  Natural  Tones  and  Delivery. 

Do  not  let  them  drawl  out  their  words.  Right  here 
many  bad  readers  are  made  if  attention  is  not  paid  to 
this  point.  This  drawling  habit  will  go  with  them 
throusrh  life.  Read  the  sentence  for  them  and  have 
them  read  it  as  they  would  talk  it.  Teach  them  the 
use  of  the  period  and  interrogation  point.  Other 
marks  may  be  deferred  for  the  present. 

3.    See  that  Pupils  take  a  Proper  Position. 

The  posture,  whether  sitting  or  standing,  should  be 
erect,  with  shoulders  thrown  back.  Do  not  allow 
pupils  to  lean  on  anvthinsr.  This  is  a  very  bad  habit 
and  pupils  need  to  be  corrected  frequently  for  it.     If 


IN     riHMTV     BCHOOLS.  77 

it  is  not  corrected  here  the  habit  of  Lounging  will  go 
with  them  through  lit*'.  This  is  one  of  the  greatest 
faults  with  which  a  country  teacher  has  to  contend. 
Pupils  should  stand  with  their  heels  nearly  together 
and  toes  apart,  about  at  an  angle  of  forty-live  de- 
grees. For  a  real  and  change  one  fool  may  be  thrown 
out  SO  that  the  heel  conies  opposite  the  instep  of  the 
other  foot.  They  may  change  weight  of  body  from 
one  foot  to  the  other  as  often  as  necessary  to  prevent 
weariness. 

4.    Cultivate  Perception  and  Language. 

Ask  questions  upon  the  subject  matter  of  the  les- 
sons. Show  them  a  picture  and  ask  them  to  point 
out  the  objects.  Print  an  easy  sentence  on  the  black- 
hoard,  leaving  a  word  to  be  supplied  by  the  pupil. 
This  will  do  for  an  occasional  exercise. 

5.    Pri  J'"  re  for  the  Next  Lesson. 

Pronounce  difficult  words.  They  may  be  placed 
upon  the  board.  Require  pupils  to  print  on  their 
slates  a  certain  number  of  words  of  the  next  lesson. 

This  will  give  them  Occupation  at  their  .-eats.  Al- 
ways give  a  certain  number  of  words  to  print  and  let 
it  be  a  less  number  than  is  given  at  the  head  of  the 
»n,  telling  them  to  Belecl  what  they  think  the 
hardest  words.  In  this  way  they  exercise  their  judg- 
ment, and  it  pleases  them  to  be  allowed  to  select  the 
■word-. 

OND    BBADEK. 

Continue  the  methods  used   in  the  First  Reader,  if 


78  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

necessary,  to  secure  the  points  indicated  under  that 
head. 

You  may  ask  more  difficult  questions  upon  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  the  lesson.  Teach  the  use  of  the 
comma  and  semicolon.  Give  an  occasional  concert 
drill,  something  after  this  manner: 

The  teacher  reads  a  sentence,  if  it  be  a  short  one, 
or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  if  it  be  too  long,  and  the 
class  reads  after  him.  The  signal  for  them  to  begin, 
a  tap  of  the  pencil.  Repeat  until  all  can  begin  and 
end  at  the  same  instant.  In  this  way  the  fast  readers 
are  checked  and  the  slow  ones  hurried  up.  Get  them 
to  imitate  your  tones  and  expression  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible. Select  the  most  difficult  parts  of  the  lesson  to 
be  read  in  this  way.  You  can  vary  the  exercise  by 
asking  questions  about  the  punctuation  marks  or 
about  the  subject  matter  of  what  is  read. 

Pay  more  attention  to  the  spelling  of  the  words  at 
the  head  of  the  lesson.  A  greater  number  should  be 
assigned  to  copy  on  slates  than  in  the  First  Reader. 
"Words  that  are  missed  by  all  the  class  may  be  printed 
on  the  blackboard  and  spelled  in  concert  by  the  class. 

Teach  emphasis  and  inflection  by  having  them  im- 
itate your  reading. 

THIRD    READER. 

Continue  exercises  given  in  Second  Reader,  making 
them  more  difficult.  Teach  the  use  of  italic  letters, 
the  apostrophe  when  it  is  used  in  contracting  words, 
and  the  use  of  capital  letters.  Tell  them  that  the 
name  of  every  person  or  place,  the  names  of  the  days 
of  the  week,  and  names  of  the  months,  the  words  I 


IN    •  oi.n  i  i;y    B<  i US,  T!< 

and  0,  and  the  first  word  after  every  period  always 
begin  with  a  capital  letter.  The  other  rules  for  the 
use  of  capitals  may  be  omitted  for  the  present.     Fix 

these  points  by  frequent  drills.  It  is  a  good  exercise 
to  write  a  sentence  occasionally  on  tin-  board,  omitting 

capitals  where  they  should  belong  and  placing  them 
where  they  should  not,  and  have  the  class  correct  it. 
Exercises  in  correcting  false  spelling  may  also  be 
given. 

The  pupil  now  should  be  taught,  if  possible,  to 
write  instead  of  print  the  spelling  lists.  Most  pupils 
reading  in  the  Third  Header  are  able  to  form  the 
script  letters,  and  wherever  they  can  they  should  be 
required  to  do  so. 

Give  the  meaning  of  the  more  difficult  words  in 
the  next  lesson.  First  ask  the  class  to  define  the 
words;  if  no  one  can  give  the  meaning,  give  it  your- 
self, and  tell  them  you  will  ask  them  at  the  next  reci- 
tation.  You  can  easily  overdo  this  matter  of  defining 
words.  It  is  best  to  talk  to  the  class  in  a  familiar 
way  about  the  words,  giving  their  meaning  by  their 
in  easy  sentences.  It  is  better  even  that  they 
should  pas-  Borne  word-,  which  they  do  not  know, 
rather  than  too  great  a  tax  be  put  upon  their  minds 
or  too  much  time  consumed  by  the  teacher.     (See 

p.  M. 

Give  exercises  in  articulation  something  after  this 
manner:  A  word,  as  night,  is  written  on  the  black- 
board, and  the  teacher  asks  the  cla  pronounce  it. 
Then  the  teacher  asks  how  many  letters  in  the  word, 
thm  spells  it  by  sound,  requiring  the  class  to  repeat 


80  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

the  sounds  after  him,  then  asking  them  how  many 
sounds  in  the  word,  what  letters  are  silent,  etc. 

Exercises  for  articulation  should  alwa}7s  be  real 
words,  not  mere  combinations  of  letters  to  represent 
certain  sounds.  I  think  it  an  error  to  drill  children 
in  pronouncing  such  combinations  as  fwoi,  dofst,  tifst, 
etc.  For  further  examples  of  this  kind  see  McGuf- 
fey's  Third  Reader,  p.  9. 

FOURTH  READER. 

Continue  the  exercises  given  in  Third  Reader  where 
necessary. 

Give  more  frequent  drills  on  emphasis  and  inflec- 
tion. Teach  the  use  of  inflection  marks,  quotation 
marks  and  hyphen.  Have  class  criticise  each  others' 
reading.  It  is  a  good  exercise  occasionally  to  allow 
the  class  to  remain  at  their  desks  and  call  out  one  at 
a  time  to  step  upon  the  rostrum  and  read  a  paragraph 
or  two,  the  others  criticising  his  position,  tone  and 
expression,  etc. 

One  or  more  words  may  be  assigned  to  each  pupil  to 
spell  and  define  from  memory  at  the  next  recitation. 
The  teacher  may  add  to  the  words  at  the  head  of  the 
lesson  ;  others,  requesting  the  pupils  to  go  to  the  Dic- 
tionary for  their  meaning.  Teach  how  to  find  words  in 
the  Dictionary.  Pupils  may  be  required  to  write  the 
word  and  its  definition  on  the  slate.  Occasionally  write 
a  sentence  on  the  board,  containing  proper  names,  com- 
mon abbreviations,  contractions  of  words,  etc.,  and 
require  pupils  to  copy  on  slates.  Make  this  an  exer- 
cise in  penmanship.  Give  the  most  common  rules  for 
the  use  of  capitals  and  frequent  drills  to  fix  them. 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  81 

As  members  of  the  Fourth  Reader  class  usually 
have  other  Btadies,  not  bo  much  time  need  be  spent 
writing  the  Bpelling  lists  as  in  the  Third  Reader. 

ADVANCED    BE  LDING. 

Under  this  head  comes  Fifth  and  Sixth  Readers  as 
usually  found  in  common  schools.  Continue  meth- 
ods used  in  Fourth  [leader,  and  practice  frequently 
upon  the  exercises  given  under  the  rules  of  elocution 
in  the  hooks.  Call  the  attention  of  the  class  to  the 
rules  which  should  govern  them  in  the  piece  to  be 
read.  Passages  which  illustrate  particular  rules  in 
the  next  lesson  should  be  read  and  commented  upon 
by  the  teacher  as  a  preliminary  drill.  Explain  geo- 
graphical and  historical  points  in  the  lesson.  Point 
out  the  beauties  and  excellencies  of  authors,  and  tell 
anything  regarding  their  lives  which  you  know  and 
would  he  interesting  to  the  class.  Instruction  may 
_iven  upon  versification  so  far  as  pointing  out  the 
kinds  of  poetic  feet,  kinds  of  verse  and  poetic  license. 
These  matters  to  be  governed  by  the  powers  of  your 
pupils,  the  time  allotted  you,  and  your  own  qualifica- 
tions.    (See  page  35. 

GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS. 

The  teacher  should,  in  teaching  reading,  hold  con- 
stantly in  mind  two  point-,  viz:  1-!.  To  BCCUre  a 
proper  oral  expression  of  written  or  printed  composi- 
tion; 2d.  To  develop  and  increase  the  power  of  grasp- 
ing thought.     The  first  point  is  to  be  secured  by  con- 

6 


82  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

stant  drill  and  practice  in  the  management  of  the 
voice.  In  the  cultivation  of  the  voice  four  points  are 
to  be  considered,  Quantity,  Quality,  Compass  aud  Move- 
ment. 

Emphasis,  Force,  Stress,  Slur  and  Accent  are  all  mod- 
ifications of  Quantity.  These  parts  should  be  taught 
from  the  First  Reader  up,  mainly  in  primary  classes 
by  imitation  of  the  teacher.  The  greatest  failing  in 
schools  comes  under  this  head.  One  half  of  the  pu- 
pils in  all  our  schools  do  not  read  sufficiently  loud 
and  strong.  Teachers  should  take  particular  pains 
to  remedy  this  by  constant  effort  from  the  beginning 
of  the  pupil's  school  life.  The  teacher  should  stand 
at  a  distance  from  the  pupils  and  require  them  to 
read  loud  enough  to  be  heard  in  all  parts  of  the  room. 
Give  frequent  exercise  in  pronouncing  the  vowel 
sounds,  words  and  sentences,  with  different  degrees 
of  force. 

The  most  difficult  part  of  vocal  culture,  perhaps,  is 
Quality  of  the  voice.  In  order  to  read  in  a  proper 
tone  the  reader  must  place  himself  in  the  position  of 
the  author  and  enter  into  his  very  soul,  that  he  may 
express  his  feelings.  The  pupil  must  understand  the 
nature  of  the  sentiment  before  he  can  give  the  proper 
tone.  Much  may  be  learned  by  imitating  the  teacher, 
especially  with  very  young  pupils. 

Xothing  but  careful  training  can  give  the  proper 
pitch  and  inflection  of  the  voice,  and  ability  to  read 
well  depends  greatly  upon  this  power.  Certain  vowel 
sounds,  as  a  or  o,  or  words  as  do,  ra,  may  be  given  in 
different  keys  until  the  class  is  able  to  pitch  their 
voices  upon  any  key  within  their  compass.     Drills  in 


IN    OOUNTBY    schools.  83 

inflection  may  be  given  by  arranging  a  Beries  of 
words  and  sentences  in  the  form  of  questions  and 
answers,  requiring  one  portion  of  the  class  to  give 
the  question  and  the  other  the  answer. 

[Jnder  the  head  of  Movement  come  Rate  and  Pause. 
Many  pupils  habitually  read  too  fast,  while  others  are 
too  slow.  Concert  reading,  as  an  occasional  practice, 
is  good  i"  regulate  this  matter.  The  marks  of  punc- 
tuation, of  30urse,  are  not  to  be  disregarded,  but 
there  are  other  pauses  required  by  the  sense,  and  the 
pupil  must  understand  what  he  is  reading  or  he  cati 
not  give  them.  Paragraphs  maybe  selected  by  the 
teacher  and  the  class  drilled  in  reading  them  with 
reference  to  rate  and  pause. 

Tl>>    Teacher  Should  Endeavor  to  Develop  th  Tower  of 

Grasping  Thought. 

A  --Mid  reader  is  able  to  grapple  with  a  whole  scn- 
Tenee  almost  at  a  glance  and  take  in  its  full  purport. 
This  part  of  mental  training  is  very  much  neglected 
everywhere.  Bui  tew  persons,  comparatively,  know 
how  to  read  a  book  bo  as  to  gel  at  the  Bubstance  of 
discourse.  We  musl  know  how,  as  it  were,  to 
Bwoop  down  upon  a  mass  of  words  and  bear  away 
the  ideas  expressed.     With  many  writers  the  words 

are  so  many  and  the  idea-  are  BO  few  and  BO  well  eon- 

cealed  thai  it  requires  the  penetrating  eye  of  a  hawk 
and  the  power  of  a  magnel  to  discover  and  drag  out 
the  gems  of  truth  from  the  mass  of  rubbish.  The 
teacher  can  do  much  by  asking  numerous  questions 
upon  the  subjecl  matter  of  what  is  read.  The  ques- 
tions should   be  asked  in    various  way-,  so  as  to  draw 


84  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

out  the  full  meaning  of  the  author.  As  an  example 
of  the  method  of  asking  questions  to  young  begin- 
ners, I  give  the  following  : 

The  trees  lift  up  their  green  heads  in  the  bright 
light  of  spring. 

Question.    "What  lift  up  their  green  heads? 

Answer.    The  trees. 

Q.    Where  do  they  lift  up  their  green  heads? 

A.   In  the  bright  light  of  spring. 

Q.    What  kind  of  heads  do  they  lift  up  ? 

A.    Green  heads. 

Q.   What  kind  of  light  is  spoken  of? 

A.    Bright  light. 

Q.    Light  of  what? 

A.   Light  of  spring. 

Single  sentences  may  be  taken  in  this  way  and  ana- 
lyzed until  the  pupils  see  the  full  force  of  what  they 
have  read.  Questions  of  an  entirely  different  charac- 
ter should  also  be  given  on  the  entire  lesson,  ques- 
tions which  should  be  answered  in  the  pupil's  own 
language.  Such  questions  will  not  only  test  the  fact 
of  their  understanding  of  the  lesson,  but  develop  their 
power  of  expression  and  cultivate  language.  Exam- 
ples of  such  questions  are  given  in  most  readers. 

It  should  not  be  expected  of  pupils  that  they  under- 
stand absolutely  everything  they  read.  There  are 
many  words  which  they  may  have  an  idea  of,  yet  not 
a  complete  one,  and  man}'  expressions  which  they  can 
not  see  the  full  force  and  meaning;  but  these  things 
will  be  learned  as  they  grow  older.  Again,  a  pupil 
may  have  a  pretty  good  idea  of  the  meaning  of  a 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  85 

word,  yet  not  be  able  to  express  his  meaning  in 
words.  This  is  the  case  with  all  of  us,  especially 
with  many  familiar  words  which  we  use  every  day. 
To  test  this,  ask  your  pupils  to  give  a  definition  of 
stove,  chair,  table,  etc.  Try  yourself  to  give  a  defini- 
tion of  these  words.  I  venture  to  assert  that  not  one 
teacher  oul  of  a  thousand  can  give  a  complete  defini- 
tion of  these  words.     (See  page  79.) 

Our  text-books  are  not  always  just  as  they  should 
be.  Many  of  the  lessons  for  young  children  arc  too 
far  above  their  comprehension. 

Many  teachers  assert  that  pupils  should  be  assigned 
very  short  reading  lessons,  and  they  should  be  read 
over  and  over  again  until  they  are  thoroughly  under- 
stood and  can  be  read  with  a  great  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. This,  I  think,  is  a  mistake.  It  is  a  hobby  I 
used  to  ride  myself,  but  I  found  it  not  a  safe  one,  from 
this  fact,  children  soon  tire  of  one  thing,  and  a  piece 
read  over  so  many  times  becomes  almost  disgusting, 
and  less  int. Test  will  be  taken  and  consequently  less 
progress  made.  Our  reading  books  should  be  twice 
as  large  and  twice  as  many.  But  an  item  of  expense 
here  comes  in  which  is  quite  an  objection.  It'  we 
could  only  have  many  more  lessons,  each  one  illus- 
trating the  same  points  in  elocution,  but  in  which  the 
matter  is  different  and  consequently  always  something 
new  and  interesting,  \  think  much  greater  progress 
would  be  made.  The  rule  will  apply  all  the  wa\  from 
beginners  up.  A-  soon  as  a  child  has  learned  to  call 
a  dozen  words  at  Bight,  these  words  should  be  ar- 
ranged in  as  many  sentences  ae  possible,  each  sen- 


86  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

tence  expressing  a  new  thought]  or  expressing  it  in  a 
new  way. 

All  children  love  stories.  The  juvenile  papers  and 
magazines  and  nursery  books  all  have  a  great  influ- 
ence in  teaching  children  and  youth  to  read.  How 
much  more  progress  would  be  made  if  they  read 
them  under  the  eye  of  a  teacher  than  by  themselves. 
But  as  we  must  accept  our  text-books  as  they  are,  for 
the  present  at  least,  what  can  the  country  teacher  do 
in  this  case  ?     I  have  a  plan  to  propose : 

In  many  schools  reading  classes  are  small,  some- 
times not  more  than  two  or  three,  and  owing  to  the 
irregular  attendance  in  country  schools,  there  will  be 
many  days  when  some  one  or  more  of  the  -lasses  in 
reading  will  have  but  two  or  three  pupils.  In  such 
cases  assign  a  lesson  from  a  newspaper,  a  Sunday- 
school  paper,  a  juvenile  magazine,  or  an}r  book  in 
which  you  may  find  stories  or  descriptive  sketches 
suited  to  the  wants  of  your  particular  class.  The 
pupils  can  take  the  paper  or  book  in  turn  and  read 
the  piece  over,  or  copy  certain  parts  of  it  on  their 
slates,  and  when  recitation  comes  they  may  look  on 
the  same  book,  or,  each  one  having  copied  his  own 
part,  pay  strict  attention  to  the  others  reading  their 
parts,  and  criticisms  may  be  made  by  the  class.  The 
teacher  may  take  a  story  from  a  newspaper  and  cut 
into  sections,  giving  each  one  a  section,  and  require 
it  copied  on  slates  and  read  from  the  slate  at  recita- 
tion. This  can  be  made  an  exercise  in  spelling,  cap- 
itals, punctuation  and  penmanship. 

Country  teachers  might  club  together  and  write 
or  select  from  books  or  papers  pieces  suited  to  all 


IN    ihINIKV    8<  EOOLS. 

their  classes  and  have  them  printed  in  their  county 
paper.    A  number  of  copies  of  the  paper  may  bi 

kin  by  the  club  ami  each  teacher  use  them  in  turn. 
It  they  are  taken  eaiv  of  they  may  he  used  tor  many 
schools.  Country  editors  can  easily  he  induced  to 
print  Buch  matter  if  the  object  \fi  explained  to  them: 
in  t'aet,  if  a  club  is  formed  and  a  number  of  copies 
taken  it  will  be  to  their  advantage  to  do  so.  0: 
matter  in  these  papery,  such  as  marriage  and  death 
notices,  local  news,  advertisements,  etc.,  may  he  used 
in  advanced  classes,  as  an  occasionel  variation  from 
the  monotony  of  the  text-book.  In  this,  a.-  in  other 
parts  of  teaching,  the  teacher  should  bend  every  fac- 
ulty to  his  work.     (Sec  p.  206.) 

In  all  his  reading,  which  should  embrace  a  wide 
scope,  he  Bhould  be  on  the  lookout  for  whatever  may 
benefit  his  classes.  Little  stories  and  sketches  are 
found  almosi  everyday  by  a  general  reader,  and  the 
teacher  should  try  to  secure  and  preserve  them  for 

future  Q8<  . 

Occasional  reading  lessons  from  the  geographi 
grammar-,  arithmetics  and  histories  may  he  given  to 
vary  the  exercises.  The  Constitution  of  the  [Jnited 
States,  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  Articles  of 
( !onfederation,  etc.,  to  i„-  found  in  all  school  histoi 
should  he  read  one  or  more  times  during  a  term  \>\ 
advanced  classi  3. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SPELLING    AND    DEFINING. 

The  orthography  of  the  English  language  is  diffi- 
cult. The  majorityof  the  words  are  not  phonetic,  and 
the  rules  for  spelling  have  too  many  exceptions  to  be 
of  much  utility. 

We  learn  to  spell  both  by  the  eye  and  b}T  the  ear. 
Both  written  and  oral  spelling  exercises  should  be 
employed.  We  hear  a  word  spelled  and  remember 
the  order  of  the  letters,  or  we  con  the  words  over,  re- 
peating the  letters,  and  thus  fix  their  order  in  our 
minds.  Thus  we  learn  by  the  ear.  We  see  a  word 
written  or  printed  and  observe  the  order  and  position 
of  the  letters  as  we  would  the  objects  in  a  picture,  and 
they  become  fixed  in  our  memory,  and  thus  we  learn 
by  the  eye.  Writing  spelling  has  the  advantage 
of  giving  employment  to  pupils  who  would  otherwise, 
perhaps,  be  in  mischief.  It  also  affords  training  to 
the  hand  and  is  an  aid  in  penmanship. 

In  addition  to  the  spelling  exercises  in  connection 
with  the  reading  lessons,  daily  drills  in  spelling,  de- 
fining, capitalization,  punctuation  and  abbreviations 
should  be  given,  the  entire  school,  from  the  Second 
Reader  up,  participating. 

I  have  found  it  best  to  classify  the  school  into  two 

(88) 


I\    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  89 

general  classes,  a  primary  and  an  advanced.  Each  of 
these  classes  may  be  divided  into  two  sections  that  the 
exercises  may  be  graded  to  their  capacities.  The  dif- 
ferenl  sections  may  1"'  assigned  different  parts  of  the 
Bame  lesson,  bul  it  can  be  so  managed  that  there  need 
be  but  one  recitation  for  each  class.  Not  less  than 
fifteen  minutes  should  be  devoted  to  each  recitation. 
For  an  advanced  class  I  give  a  lesson  something  as 
follows:  Ten  or  more  words  are  selected  and  written 
upon  the  black-board  in  the  morning,  in  as  neat  and 
plain  a  manner  as  possible,  the  letters  made  according' 
to  the  Spencerian  System.  lean  best  illustrate  this 
by  giving  a  model  lesson  : 

1.  curriculum 

2.  Joseph  Kay,  M.  D. 

3.  daguerreotype 

4.  autumnal 

5.  Win.  II.  McGuffey,  LL.  D. 

6.  stationary 

7.  stationery 

8.  Springfield,  111. 

9.  I  ton.  E.  S.  Sampson,  M.  C. 
in.     Marion  Co.  I  temocral 

It  must  be  explained  to  the  pupils  that  words  in 
these  lessons  arc  to  be  written  jusl  as  they  would  ap- 
pear in  tie'  middle  of  ;i  sentence.  I  have  given  above 
rather  more  words,  which  should  he  capitalized,  and 
more  abbreviations  than  I  would  in  an  ordinary  les- 
son. Perhaps  one  or  two  Buch  examples  would  he 
sufficient  in  each  lesson.  It  will  he  seen  by  the  above 
that  capitalization,  punctuation  and  abbreviations  are 

taught  in  a  nat  ural  manner. 


90  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

This  lesson  may  remain  upon  the  hoard  until  within 
an  hour  of  the  time  of  recitation,  which  should  be 
near  the  close  of  the  day.  During  this  time  the  class 
should  be  required  to  copy  it  on  their  slates  one  or 
more  times.  The  most  backward  spellers,  and  those 
inclined  to  be  idle,  may  be  required  to  copy  it  oftener 
than  the  good  spellers  or  those  who  are  diligent. 
One  or  more  words  may  be  marked  and  arranged  as 
a  lesson  in  defining,  the  pupil  to  find  the  meaning  in 
the  dictionary.  The  modes  of  conducting  the  recita- 
tion may  be  various.  The  words  are  erased  or,  what 
is  better,  covered  with  a  shawl,  map  or  newspaper, 
before  the  hour  of  recitation.  The  teacher,  having  re- 
served a  slate  containing  a  copy  of  the  lesson,  requires 
the  lessons  to  be  erased  from  all  other  slates.  He 
then  pronounces  the  words  and  the  pupils  write  them 
on  their-  slates.  Slates  may  be  exchanged  and  the 
pupils  criticise  each  other's  work,  or  each  one  retain 
his  own  slate  and  mark  the  misspelled  words  as  the 
teacher  gives  the  correct  spelling.  The  words  may 
then  be  spelled  orally,  the  slates  being  turned  down 
on  the  desks.  All  words  missed  should  be  written 
again  correctly  by  the  pupils.  Words  missed  by  the 
majority  of  the  class  should  be  taken  down  by  the 
teacher  and  used  for  future  lessons.  The  covering 
may  be  removed  from  the  lesson  on  the  board  and 
the  pupils  correct  their  slates  from  that. 

As  an  occasional  exercise,  say  once  a  week,  the 
class  maybe  provided  with  pens  and  ink  and  slips  of 
paper  to  write  their  lessons.  The  lessons  being  dated 
and  signed  by  the  pupil,  both  sides  may  be  used,  and 
they  may  be  kept  as  a  record  of  the  pupil's  progress 


IX    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  91 

in  spelling  and  penmanship.  There  are  blank  books 
provided  for  this  purpose  which  are  very  convenient 
and  cheap. 

These  written  Bpelling  Lessons  may  be  varied  in 
many  ways.  <  Occasionally,  sentences  should  be  given. 
The  dictation  exercises  given  in  Bpelling  books  are 
very  convenient  The  lessons  need  not  always  be 
written.  Oral  spelling  should  not  be  neglected.  As 
spelling  books  are  common  in  most  country  schools 
the  teacher  may  make  use  of  them  in  various  ways. 
Avoid  a  routine  plan  of  teaching.  Study  new  meth- 
ods of  conducting  Bpelling  drills.  There  is  nothing 
like  variety  here  to  keep  up  an  int. Test.  The  old- 
fashioned  custom  of  having  a  Bpelling  match  every 
Friday  is  not  a  had  one.  The  ingenious  teacher  of 
to-day  will,  however,  find  many  ways  of  varying  the 
old  plan.  A  good  method  in  oral  spelling  is  to  have 
the  class  numbered  and  their  numbers  written  upon 
the  black-board.  The  teacher  then,  with  book  in  one 
hand  and  pointer  in  the  other,  pronounces  a  word 
ami  points  to  a  certain  number.  The  pupil  corr< 
ponding  to  that  number  spells  the  word.  It'  he  missi 
a  mark  is  made  under  his  number  and  the  word 
passed  to  another.  By  jumping  rapidly  from  one 
numb*  r  to  another  promiscuously,  the  pupil-  are  com- 
pell<  d  to  pay  close  attention.  The  number  of  mar' 
then,  will  show  the  number  of  word-  missed  by  each 
pupil.  Another  plan  is  to  have  each  one  of  the  el 
have  slate  and  pencil  in  hand,  and  whenever  a  pupil 
misses  let  him  write  the  word  on  the  -late.  < Occasion- 
ally, words  may  he  written  on  the  hoard  falsely  spelled 


92  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

and  pupils  be  required  to  write  the  spelling  correctly 
on  slates. 

In  a  written  lesson,  as  given  above,  the  teacher  may 
define  the  words  as  he  gives  them  out,  sometimes  by 
giving  the  definition  as  in  the  dictionary,  or  by  giving 
a  sentence  containing  the  word,  and  make  such  re- 
marks about  the  origin,  etc.,  of  words  or  terms  as  he 
may  think  proper.  Much  interesting  information 
ma}'  be  conveyed  in  this  manner  which  will  not  be 
lost  on  many  of  the  pupils.  He  should  avoid,  how- 
ever, consuming  much  time  in  this  manner.  (See 
p.  79.) 

Primary  classes  may  receive  lessons  similar  to  the 
above  but  limited  to  their  capacities.  Many  will  not 
be  able  to  write  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  write  from 
dictation,  but  lessons  may  be  placed  on  the  board  oc- 
casionally and  copied  by  the  class  and  then  recited 
orally.  Lessons  from  the  spelling-book  may  be  as- 
signed and  copied  on  slates  as  a  preparation  and 
recited  orally.  Occasionally  a  class  may  be  required 
to  form  their  own  lesson  in  the  following  manner: 
Tell  them,  each  one,  to  write  ten  names  of  objects  they 
saw  on  the  road  to  school,  or  objects  in  the  school- 
room, or  things  used  in  the  kitchen,  shop,  etc.  The 
slates  are  then  collected  and  the  words  given  out  by 
the  teacher.  No  two  pupils  will  have  exactly  the 
same  list  o'f  words.  Perhaps  out  of  the  whole  num- 
ber there  will  be  some  words  which  the  majority  of 
the  class  will  miss.  In  this  case  a  list  should  be  made 
of  such  words  to  be  used  in  future  recitations.  Easy 
abbreviations  and  contractions,  such  as  Dr.,  Mr.,  can't, 
couldn't,  etc.,  may  be  given  primary  pupils.     It  is  best 


IN    (  OI'NTKY    SCHOOLS.  \K\ 

to  exhibit  them  in  sentences  showing  their  use  and 
meaning.  The  instruction  in  regard  to  use  oi"  capi- 
tals, punctuation, etc., given  in  reading  classes  should 
be  repeated  in  sp'elling  classes.  When  a  class  is  di- 
vided into  sections  the  lesson  may  be  written  all 
together,  and  words  designed  for  the  advanced  sec- 
tion designated  Tby  a  mark,  such  as  a  line  drawn  un- 
der them  or  by  inclosing  them  in  a  parenthesis. 

I  would  impress  upon  the  teacher  the  following 
considerations : 

1.  Teach  BUch  words  first  which  the  pupil  will  be 
apt  to  use  tirst  in  writing  a  familiar  letter  or  in  read- 
ing ordinary  composition. 

•J.  Constant  reviews  are  necessary  to  fix  certain 
hard  words  in  the  memory,  therefore,  all  words  which 
arc  frequently  misspelled  should  lie  made  the  subjects 
of  future  lessons,  and  words  which  are  very  easy 
should  not  occupy  the  time  of  the  pupils. 

•■;.  Too  many  of  the  words  found  in  spelling-books 
an-  to  be  found  nowhere  else  outside  of  medical, 
law  <>r  other  technical  works,  and  pupils  should  not 
be  required  to  study  them  until  necessity  for  their  use 
demands  it.  A  common  newspaper  is  on,'  of  the  best 
places  from  which  to  select  words  for  spelling  lessons. 

1.  In  giving  out  words  to  be  spelled  the  teachers 
should  pronounce  them  distinctly  and  properly,as  he 
would  were  he  reading  a  composition  containing 
them.  BEe  should  never  pronounce  the  word  wrong 
t  the  pupil  in  spelling  it.  In  oral  spelling  the 
pupil  should  be  required  to  pronounce  the  word 
before  spelling  it.  and  in  Bpelling  to  pronounce  each 
syllable  as  he  spells 


94  xftETHODS   OF   TEACHING 

5.  In  assigning  a  lesson  call  attention  to  one  or 
more  of  the  difficult  words,  telling  the  pupils  such 
words  they  will  very  likely  miss  unless  they  study 
them  particularly.  I  have  pursued  this  plan  with 
somewhat  surprising  results.  If  I  found  a  very  diffi- 
cult word  I  remarked,  on  assigning  the  lesson,  that  I 
did  not  think  any  one  would  be  aole  to  spell  that 
word  to-morrow.  I  could  see  among  several  pupils  a 
look  of  incredulity,  as  much  as  to  say,  "I  am  not 
going  to  miss  it,"  and  the  consequence  was  that  the 
particular  word  was  generally  spelled  by  even  the 
dullest  in  the  class. 

6.  It  will  not  be  amiss  to  teach  something  of 
spelling  along  with  other  branches.  New  words 
occurring  in  arithmetic,  grammar  and  history  may  be 
spelled  by  the  pupils. 

7.  It  may  have  been  noticed  by  many  teachers  that 
those  who  spell  well  orally  do  not  always  spell  cor- 
rectly when  writing.  I  have  seen  pupils  who  could 
spell  any  word  in  the  spelling-book  if  pronounced  to 
them,  yet  if  they  were  to  write  a  letter  to  a  friend 
would  misspell  ten  per  cent,  of  the  words.  This  is 
owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  carelessness.  The  hand 
being  occupied  in  forming  the  letters,  and  the  mind  in 
composing,  one  is  too  apt  to  neglect  the  spelling  of 
the  words.  This  fault  will  be  found  more  especially 
with  those  who  have  never  been  accustomed  to  prac- 
ticing writing  spelling.  Many  persons  habitually  mis- 
spell in  writing  certain  very  easy  words.  This  is  done 
by  mere  "  slips  of  the  pen,"  and  is  a  result  of  want  of 
attention.  The  teacher  should  take  particular  care  to 
impress   upon   his    pupils    the   importance    of  close 


IN     (Ol'NTUV    SCHOOLS.  96 

attention  to  this  matter.  It  is  a  c:ood  exercise  to 
occasionally  dictate  a  long  sentence  composed  of  easy 
words  and  have  the  class  write  it  as  rapidly  as  possi- 
ble and  then  correel  the  errors,  not  only  in  spelling, 
bu1  in  punctuation  and  capitalization.  A  short  poem 
or  hymn  may  be  committed  to  memory  or  one  chosen 
which  is  already  familiar  to  the  pupils,  as  "Mary's 
Lamb,"  "The  Little  Star,"  etc.,  and  the  pupils  be  re- 
quired to  copy  it  from  memory  and  afterwards  correct 
their  mistakes  from  the  book.  The  Lord's  Prayer, 
passages  from  the  Bible,  or  any  short  piece  of  compo- 
sition the  pupil  is  able  to  write  from  memory  or  can 

ly  commit,  may  be  used  in  this  way.  Each  pupil 
may  have  a  different  piece  and  they  may  be  allowed 

exchange  slates  and  criticise  each  other's  work. 
The  teacher  may  look  over  this  work  when  corrected 
and    point    out    such    errors    as    may    still    be    found. 

atiful  lines  of  poetry  or  short,  elegant  extracts  or 
quotations  may  be  written  on  the  board  and  commit- 
ted to  memory,  and  in  a  day  or  two  afterwards  re- 
produced  by  the  pupils  on  their  Blates.  Such  exer- 
cise may  be  given,  say  once  in  two  week-,  or  monthly. 

B.  Frequenl  exercises  should  be  given  in  addr< 
ing  letter-.  The  teacher  may  draw  the  outline  of  an 
envelope  on  the  board  and  write  an  address  in  the 
proper  place,  showing  where  to  begin  the  name,  post- 
office,  county  and  state,  and  where  to  place  the  stamp, 
and  require  pupils  to  draw  and  address  a  similar  one 

on    their  slate-,   allowing   each    one   to    use   the    name 

and  address  of  one  of  their  friends. 
9.    Difficult    words  may  be  sometimes  Bpelled    in 

concert    by  the   ela-s   after   the   teacher,  or  written    in 


96  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

prominent  characters  on  the  black-board  and  allowed 
to  remain  several  days. 

10.  The  teacher  may  call  attention  to  some  of  the 
most  important  rules  for  spelling  and  syllabication. 
Very  few  pupils  will,  however,  learn  to  spell  by  rules. 
Call  attention  frequently  to  the  diacritical  marks  used 
in  dictionaries  and  spelling  books.  Give  drills  in 
spelling  by  sound.  Call  attention  to  words  com- 
monly mispronounced  and  misspelled,  and  words  hav- 
ing more  than  one  authorized  pronunciation  or  spell- 
ing. The  dictionary  should  be  in  every  school-room, 
one  copy  at  least,  and  frequently  referred  to  by  both 
teacher  and  pupil. 

11.  Says  "Wickersham,  "  Words  are  the  winged  mes- 
sengers that  convey  information  from  one  mind  and 
heart  to  another.  All  knowledge  must  be  labeled 
with  words  or  it  can  find  no  place  in  the  cabinet  of 
memory."  I  need  not  add  that  it  is  of  exceeding  im- 
portance that  pupils  understand  the  meaning  of  words 
which  they  may  find  in  their  daily  reading  or  hear  in 
daily  conversation.  Many  words  are  learned  by  a 
sort  of  unconscious  intuition.  Children  pick  up  al- 
most daily  and  use  new  words  which  they  hear  in  con- 
versation or  find  in  their  reading.  The}'  learn  their 
meaning  by  their  connection.  The  proper  place,  then, 
for  the  main  study  of  words  is  in  a  reading  class,  but 
as  it  will  not  do  to  crowd  too  many  things  on  the  pu- 
pil's attention  at  one  time  the  subject  may  profitably 
occupy  a  part  of  the  attention  of  a  spelling  class.  In 
fact,  attention  to  the  meaning  of  words  should  be 
given  in  every  recitation  on  whatever  subject. 

The  teacher,  in  defining  words  for  his  pupils,  should, 


I.N    COUNTRY    schools.  97 

whenever  possible,  make  the  meaning  plain  by  show- 
ing the  object,  actio d  or  quality  which  the  words  rep- 
resent. For  example,  the  word  calyx  may  be  ex- 
plained by  Bhowing  thai  part  of  a  lower,  the  word 
diarm  U  r  by  drawing  a  circle  with  a  line  drawn  through 
the  center,  also  by  exhibiting  a  block,  box  or  ball  and 
explaining  that  it  means  the  distance  through  from 
one  side  or  end  to  the  other;  the  word  compress  by 
squeezing  in  the  hand  a  handkerchief,  a  rubber  ball 
or  a  Bponge;  the  words  transparent  and  opaquet  by 
pointing  to  the  panes  of  glass  in  the  window  and  to 
the  walls  of  the  house. 

The  definitions  sometimes  given  in  the  dictionary 
and  in  reading  books  are  as  difficult  of  comprehen- 
sion as  the  words  themselves.  In  this  case  the  teacher 
should  give  sentences  which  make  clear  the  meaning. 

A  -light  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek  will  aid 
much  in  defining  words,  bul  it  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  pupils  in  a  country  school  can  make  use  of  this 
knowledge.  But  it  will  be  of  great  value  to  the 
teacher  in  studying  words.  lie  can,  however,  teach 
the  meaning  of  a  few  prefixes  and  suffixes  and  show- 
lew  they  help  make  word-,  as  ad,  ex,  in,  sub,  ion,  con, 
de,  '■> ,  etc.,  and  their  use  in  such  word-  as  aspect,  in- 
t,  expect,  suspect,  respect,  conspectus,  suspicion,  etc. 

L2.     [1  will  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  mention  thai 

a  .-mall  printing  press  is  a  valuable  aid  to  good  spell- 
ing and  punctuation.  Such  presses  with  outfits  can 
be  had  now  for  the  small  sum  of  five  dollars.  The 
teacher  may  have  Buch  a  press  and  permit  pupils  to 
use  ir.  He  may  so  interest  boys  in  the  art  that  their 
7 


98  METHODS   OF   TEACHING. 

parents  will  be  constrained  to  procure  a  press  for 
them.  The  teacher  will  find  a  printing  press  of  value 
to  him  for  many  purposes  not  necessary  to  mention 
here. 


CHAPTER  III. 

ARITHMETIC. 

The  idea  of  number  is  developed  early  in  life.  The 
study  of  arithmetic  may  be  begun  quite  early  but 
Bhould  not  be  pushed  too  rapidly.  It  is  not  the  most 
important  branch  taught  in  our  schools.  Many  teach- 
ers devote  too  much  time  to  this  branch  to  the  neg- 
of  more  important  studies.  It  is  true  a  knowl- 
t"  arithmetic  is  indispensable  in  all  ordinary 
operations  of  life,  but  the  knowledge  i  ary  for  the 

practi  :al  work  of  life  is  soon  and  easily  acquired,  and 
all  beyond  this  i-  of  comparatively  Blight  importance 
compared  with  many  other  branches. 

Mental  or  oral  and  written  arithmetic  Bhould  be 
taught  together.  There  is  no  need  of  two  text-books 
on  arithmetic  in  common  schools.  All  the  principles 
and  examples  d<  ry  to  illustrate  them  might  be 

comprised  in  one  handy  volume,  which  could  be  used 
alike  by  the  primary  and  advanced  pupils  in  our 
country  schools. 

The  first  thing  a  child  learns  about  arithmetic  is  to 

count     This   he  will   learn  to  sonic  extent  with   little 

■  >  instruction.     Exercises  in  counting, and  practice 

in  forming  the  nine  digits  may  he  given  in  connection 

with  reading,     (See  p.  75.) 


100  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

The  teacher,  in  organizing  a  country  school,  will 
find  it  necessary  to  start  a  class  in  the  first  principles 
of  arithmetic.  He  should  begin  with  addition,  it  be- 
ing supposed  the  pupils  are  able  to  count  to  one  hun- 
dred. Objects  should  be  used  at  first,  such  as  pieces 
of  chalk,  sticks,  grains  of  corn,  beans,  books,  marks 
on  the  black-board,  balls  on  a  frame,  or  the  fingers. 
Commence  with  easy  examples  and  advance  gradually 
to  more  difficult  sums.  Objects  should  be  discarded 
as  soon  as  the  pupil  acquires  the  idea  of  addition  and 
can  add  with  some  degree  of  readiness.  Examples 
consisting  of  single  columns  of  figures  may  be  placed 
on  the  board  and  the  pupils  required  to  add  them  on 
their  slates  as  a  preparation  for  the  lesson.  These 
examples  should  consist  at  first  of  but  two  or  three 
numbers,  using  the  smaller  digits  and  advancing  to 
more  numbers  and  larger  digits  until  the  pupil  is  able 
to  add  a  column  of  a  dozen  or  more  figures,  using  all 
the  digits  from  one  to  nine.  In  this  way  they  will 
soon  learn  the  addition  table  by  using  it.  Oral  and 
written  exercises  should  be  given  in  about  equal  pro- 
portions. Pupils  will  soon  learn  by  observation  to 
write  numbers  above  nine  so  that  they  can  write  the 
answers  to  the  examples  giveu  if  they  do  not  go  above 
hundreds.  The  next  step  is  to  teach  the  first  princi- 
ples of  notation  and  numeration.  Show  that  the 
value  of  a  digit  depends  upon  the  place  it  occupies. 
Explain  the  use  of  the  cipher  and  teach  the  places  up 
to  thousands.  Drill  until  the  pupils  can  name  the 
first  four  places  in  any  order  you  may  point  to  them. 
Exercise  the  class  in  writing  numbers  from  one  to 
thousands.     Next  you  may  teach  the  process  of  car- 


IN    OOUNTBY    schools.  101 

rying,  and  drill  in  adding  more  than  one  column  of 
figures  until  they  are  able  to  add  any  sum  the  num- 
bera  <>t'  which  are  loss  than  thousands  Subtraction 
should  be  next  taught,  using  objects  at  first  until  they 
get  tin1  idea,  then  exercises  in  subtracting  in  one  col- 
umn ami  then  in  two  op  more  columns  whore  the 
upper  digit  is  always  the  largest,  thou  the  process  of 
borrowing.  Examples  should  he  given  until  they  are 
to  Bubtract  thousands.  Promiscuous  examples 
in  addition  and  subtraction  may  DOW  be  given  and 
the  method  of  proving  subtraction  explained. 

Further  instruction  and  exercises  in  notation  and 
numeration  may  next  he  given.  Make  baste  slowly. 
There  is  no  end  to  the  examples  you  may  give  your 
classas  practice  in  what  you  have  already  given  them 
instruction.  It'  you  have  not  books  containing  ex- 
amples, write  them  on  the  board  where  they  can  be 
Been  by  the  whole  class.  They  need  the  exercises  tor 
practice,  and  the  employment,  they  give,  will  keep 
them  out  of  mischief. 

The  next  step  will  be  to  learn  the  multiplication 
table.  It  is  best  learned  by  using  it.  rriie  teacher 
will,  of  course,  preface  the  study  of  the  table  by  an  ex- 
planation <>f  the  principle  of  multiplication.  lie  may 
illustrate  bv  objects  or  by  making  marks  on  the  board 
Bhowing  that  it  is  a  short  method  of  addition  where 
the  numbers  to  be  added  are  alike.  Examples  Bhould 
iriven  where  the  multiplier  and  multiplicand  are 
Bingle  digits,  and  next  where  the  multiplicand  is  a 
large  number,  explaining  the  process  of  carrying  as 
in  addition,  and  next  where  both  factors  consist  of 
several  digits.    Practice  multiplying   numbers  until 


102  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

the  table  is  learned,  giving  occasional  review  exer- 
cises in  addition  and  subtraction.  Oral  drills  on  the 
tables  should  be  given  daily.  Before  advancing  fur- 
ther see  that  the  pupils  can  add,  subtract  and  multi- 
ply with  facility. 

Division  is  next  in  order,  and  with  some  pupils  it 
will  take  a  great  deal  of  practice  to  make  them  per- 
fect. Drill  as  in  the  other  rules,  and  for  variety  re- 
view what  has  been  taught.  Give  examples  combin- 
ing the  four  fundamental  rules,  and  keep  up  oral  ex- 
ercises and  drills  in  notation  and  numeration.  Teach 
the  use  of  the  signs  +,  — ,  X,  -*-,  =.  Addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  division,  and  notation  and 
numeration  are  called  the  fundamental  rules,  because 
all  operations  of  arithmetic  are  carried  on  by  means 
of  them.  The  teacher  should  see  that  his  pupils  are 
thoroughly  drilled  in  them  before  advancing  further. 
Our  text-books  do  not  give  a  sufficient  number  of 
examples.  Do  not  tire  the  pupils  by  requiring  them 
to  work  the  same  examples  over  again,  but  give  them 
new  ones  illustrating  the  same  principles.  This  ob- 
servation will  hold  good  all  the  way  through  the 
book.  I  have  seen  pupils  who  had  "worked,"  as 
they  said,  half  way  through  the  text-book,  yet  could 
not  write  nor  read  large  numbers  nor  solve  examples 
in  long  division. 

I  can  see  no  propriety  in  putting  puzzling  exam- 
ples embracing  the  fundamental  rules  immediately 
after  division,  as  is  the  case  in  Ray's  arithmetic. 
Such  problems  are  rarely  ever  solved  by  the  pupils 
without  the  aid  of  the  teacher.  Examples  should  be 
given  embracing  these  rules,  but  they  should  be  plain 


IN   c<H'Nii;v    SI  BOOLS.  l<»-"> 

and  simple,  intended  to  give  exercise  in  the  procet 
of  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying  and  dividing,  and 

not  to  tost  the  child's  skill  in  reasoning.     He  is  not 

prepared  to  reason  to  such  an  extent.     Of  what 

use  can  an  example  like  the  following  be  to  a  child 

who  has  just  learned  the  four  arithmetical  processes? 

A  cistern  of  300  gals,  has  2  pipes,  one  will  fill  it  in 
15  hours,  the  other  empty  it  in  20  hours.  If  both 
pipes  are  left  open,  how  many  hours  will  the  cistern 
be  in  filling? — Ray's  Arith.,  Part  3d,  p.  64. 

An  exactly  similar  example  is  given  under  Analy- 
on  p.  265  of  the  same  book.  The  teacher  must 
his  own  judgment  about  such  matters  and  not 
blindly  follow  the  text-book,  lie  can  give  examples 
of  his  own  which  the  pupils  can  solve,  and  which  will 
give  exercise  in  the  processes  they  have  learned,  and 
such  examples  as  the  above  should  be  omitted  until 
the  pupil  has  acquired  the  .-kill  tosolv.-  them  himself. 

Processes  Bhould  be  taught  before  rules,  or  rather 
the  rules  developed  from  the  processes.  The  induc- 
tive method  is  the  best  in  teaching  arithmetic.  Thus 
far  tie-  pupil  has  only  learned  processes,  but  they  are 
pn>  he  must   use  all    through    life,  and    are  of 

more  importance  practically  than  the  more  abstract 
principles  underlying  them.  WTien  the  pupil  has 
reached  amor.-  mature  age  and  greater  intellectual 
development, the  more  abstract  parts  may  be  taken  up. 

KxampL  tewhat    like    the    following    may    1>>- 

en  a-  exercises  in  the  fundamental  rules: 

Writ.-  195.  Annex  a  cipher.  This  multiplies  it  by 
10.  Prom  this  product  i<  I  195  be  subtracted  as  many 
times  as  possible.     Ti.  ration  will  appear  the 


104  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

4950 
495 

4455 
495 

3960 
495 

3465 

495 

2970 
495 

2475 
495 

1980  m 

495 

1485 
495 

990 
495 

495 
495 

000 

It  will  be  seen  that  after  ten  subtractions  the  re- 
mainder is  naught.  This  proves  that  division  is  but 
"  a  short  method  of  making  many  subtractions  of  the 
same  number."  Any  other  number  than  ten  may  be 
used  as  the  multiplier,  and  it  will  be  found  that  to 
make  the  final  remainder  naught  there  must  be  as 
many  subtractions  as  there  are  units  in  the  multiplier. 

The  operation  may  be  reversed;  by  starting  with 
naught  and  adding  495  ten  times  successively  the 
number  4950  will  be  reached,  proving  that  multipli- 
cation is  a  short  method  of  adding  equal  numbers. 


IN    COUNTRY    BCHOOLB.  K»5 

By  giving  Bucb  examples  as  the  above  much  exercise 
can  In-  given  the  pupil  with  Little  work  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher.  The  pupils  make  their  own  examples. 
Exercis<  in  proving  subtraction,  multiplication  and 
division  should  be  given,  and  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant contractions  taught. 

Eaving  had  sufficient  drill  in  handling  simple  inte- 
gral numbers  in  their  fundamental  relations,  the  pu- 
pil is  now  ready  to  commence  with 

COMPOUND   OR   DENOMINATE    NUMBERS. 

United  States  Money,  though  really  a  form  of  deci- 
mals, 18  placed  under  this  head  by  some  authors,  and 
as  it  is  simple  and  affords  much  exercise  in  the  fun- 
damental rules,  and  involving  only  one  new  idea,  that 
of  the  separatrix,  it  is  best  taken  up  here.  Particular 
attention  should  In1  paid  to  the  fact  that  the  separa- 
trix is  used  to  separate  dollars  and  cents;  that  it  is- 
always  placed  after  dollars  and  before  cents,  and  should 
never  in  any  case  he  omitted.  I'upils  need  frequent 
reminding  of  this  fact,  and  the  teacher  should  see 
that  the  hal.it  of  attention  to  this  matter  is  formed 
while  very  young.  Explain  to  them  that  if  this  little- 
matter  is  not  attended  to.  serious  trouble  will  arise  in 

after   operations    of  arithmetic.      1     have   seen    pupils 

working  almosl  through  the  book  who  would  make 
blunders  of  tlii-  kind  constantly,  and  tret  examples  so 
confused  that  they  could  not  tell  what  they  were  do- 
ing, and  all  because  they  had  never  ' n  taught  the 

important f  the  separatrix.     Explain  that  in  U.S. 

money  ten  units  of  one  denomination  make  one  of  the 
next  higher,  and  consequently  they  can  be  handle  1 


106  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

the  same  as  simple  numbers,  the  only  difference  being 
that  dollars  and  cents  are  always  to  be  separated  by 
the  point.  The  fact  that  cents  always  occupy  two 
places  should  also  be  impressed  upon  their  minds, 
explaining  that  accounts  are  kept  in  dollars,  cents 
and  mills,  and  that  dimes  and  cents  are  counted  to- 
gether as  cents,  and  therefore  when  the  number  of 
cents  is  less  than  ten  there  are  no  dimes,  and  a  cipher 
must  be  placed  next  to  the  separatrix  in  the  place  of 
dimes.  You  may  tell  them  that  a  mill  is  the  tenth 
part  of  a  cent  or  the  one  thousandth  part  of  a  dollar, 
and  is  not  coined,  being  too  small,  but  is  of  impor- 
tance in  calculating  large  amounts.  They  will  under- 
stand this  better  when  they  have  studied  decimals. 

Give  numerous  examples  in  adding,  subtracting, 
multiplying  and  dividing  U.  S.  money,  many  more 
than  are  given  in  the  text-books.  Examples  of  mer- 
chants' bills  are  given  in  most  books,  but  the  teacher 
should  add  many  more,  as  they  are  of  great  practical 
value.  In  giving  the  example  of  a  merchant's  bill, 
use  the  name  of  some  merchant  in  the  neighborhood 
whom  the  pupils  know,  and  give  always  the  current 
price  of  items.  Pay  particular  attention  to  the  neat- 
ness of  a  bill,  using  abbreviations,  capital  letters  arid 
punctuation  properly.  Require  pupils  to  copy  the 
examples  from  the  board  as  written  by  the  teacher. 
An  example  of  this  kind  will  appear  something  like 
the  following: 


IX    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  107 

Bisskv,  Iuwa,  July  10,  1S7'J. 
.1  as.  II.  Sim  Ms. 

Boi  '.in'  OF  Tin  n.    WEBT  : 

11  lbs.  Oofl  -      -  .26 

17  lbs.  Sugar  .08 

•J  Boxi  -  M  iti  b  .10 

3  Pair  Sh<  "     2.40 

}-2  V.ls.  Prints  "         .(17 

23  Yds.  Muslin  "        .12 

3  Spools  Thread  "       .05 

2  Do*.  Buttona  "       .03 

k.  c*d  Payment  S 

Tiieo.  West. 

The  more  apt  pupils  maybe  requested  to  make  out 
au<l  write  od  their  slates  bills  of  their  own.  This  will, 
however,  lie  a  good  exercise  for  review  afterthe  pupil 
lias  passed  through  Compound  Numbers. 

Reduction  of  Compound  Numbers  may  now  be 
taught.  The  tables  should  be  Learned  by  using  them. 
It*  numerous  examples  are  given  and  sufficient  drill 
be  had  at  recitation  upon  each  table,  the  tables  will 
boob  be  learned  without  the  necessity  of  telling  pu- 
pils they  must  commit  them  to  memory.  See  that 
■  amples  are  written  neatly  and  all  denominations 
expressed  by  their  pi-ope,-  abbreviations,  attention  be- 
ing paid  to  pronunciation.  Illustrate  by  familiar 
objects,  the  different  weights  and  measures  in  com- 
mon use.     (See  p.  39.)       1 1  ,  qo1  negled  the  oral  drill 

on  each  table,  (live  practical  examples,  Such  as  in- 
volve dimensions  of  the  school-room,  tables,  desks, 
school-yard,  fences,  etc. 

It  is  a  good  exercise  to  require  pupils  to  copy  the 
tables  from  the  books  on  their  slates.  Clotb  Measure 
and  Ale  and  Beer  Measure  not  being  now  in  asi  . 
Bhould  be  omitted  if  found  in  the  text-book,  and  (Jir- 


108  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

cular  Measure  and  English  Money  deferred  until  the 
pupil  has  made  greater  advancement.  Review  by 
numerous  promiscuous  examples  for  practice,  giving 
frequent  drills  on  the  tables. 

Addition,  Subtraction,  Multiplication  and  Division 
of  Compound  lumbers  may  come  next.  Explain 
that  numbers  of  the  same  denomination  only,  can  be 
added  or  subtracted.  Show  that  in  simple  numbers 
ten  units  of  one  denomination  make  one  of  the  next 
higher,  but  in  Compound  Numbers  some  other  num- 
ber than  ten  is  used.  Explain  the  process  of  carrying 
and  borrowing.  Give  practical  examples  in  subtrac- 
tion ;  let  the  pupil  find  difference  between  dates,  and 
require  each  one  to  find  his  own  exact  age  in  this 
way.  Longitude  and  Time  should  be  omitted  until 
the  pupil  is  more  advanced. 

Review  Compound  Numbers  until  pupils  under- 
stand what  you  have  attempted  to  teach  them.  Do 
not  turn  the  class  back  in  the  book.  This  is  always 
discouraging.  But  give  a  number  of  review  lessons, 
taking  up  those  parts  in  which  you  find  the  class  to- 
be  the  most  deficient.  This  rule  will  hold  good 
always.  Never  turn  a  pupil  back,  but  advance  slowly, 
giving  plenty  of  exercises,  and  review  frequently  until 
all  is  thoroughly  understood. 

The  pupil  is  now  ready  to  investigate  some  of  the 
properties  of  numbers,  generally  considered  under 
the  head  of  factoring. 

A  great  deal  of  preliminary  drill  is  here  necessary 
to  get  pupils  to  comprehend  the  definitions.  It  is 
nonsense  to  require  them  to  commit  to  memory  defi- 
nitions and  rules  the  meaning  of  which  they  can  not 


IN    (uiNinv    8CHOOL8.  109 

comprehend.  Pupila  always  expect  their  lessons  iti 
arithmetic  to  be  mostly  examples,  and  they  will  take 
little  interest  in  studying  definitidns.  (live  numer- 
ous examples  first  and  develop  the  definitions  from 
them.  Empress  on  their  minds  tin-  idea  of  a  factor,  a 
multiple  and  a  prime  number.  Teach  the  process  of 
finding  the  least  common  multiple  and  greatest  com- 
mon divisor,  Leaving  the  demonstrations  until  a  future 
period,  explaining  that  though  they  may  see  no  im- 
port ance  in  these  processes  at  present  they  will  as 
they  advance  in  the  book. 

The  pro  :    eancellation   may  next  be  taught, 

after  which  the  pupil  may  commence  Fractions. 

The  idea  of  a  fraction  should  be  illustrated  by 
taking  some  object,  as  an  apple,  a  stick  or  a  p>iece  of 
paper  and  dividing  it  into  equal  parts.  Then  show  how 
a  fraction  is  written,  and  explain  the  terms  numera- 
tor (numberer)  and  denominator  (namer).  Numer- 
ous examples  should  be  riven  in  writing  and  reading 
fraction-,  and  thorough  drill,  until  the  class  has  the 
<>f  a  fraction  and  understands  the  terms,  numera- 
tor and  denominator. 

The  process  of  reduction  may  follow,  remembering 
to  make  haste  Blowly,  giving  numerous  examples  and 
frequent  review-.  I  Deed  not  discourse  further  on 
this  subject.     The  teacher,  who  has  carried  a  class 

-fullv  thus  far,  will  readily  Bee  what  is  nee 
to  make  profici<  Lolars  in  fractions. 

Fractional  Compound  Numbers  may  next  be  stud- 
ied. Examples  in  [J.  8.  money  and  merchants' bills 
involving  fractions  should  be  given.  Decimal  Frac- 
tions may  follow.     Review  simple  number-,  -bowing 


110  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

how  they  increase  and  decrease  in  a  tenfold  ratio. 
Impress  the  importance  of  the  decimal  point.  Com- 
pare U.  S.  money  with  decimals,  showing  the  advan- 
tages of  the  decimal  system. 

Percentage  should  be  studied  before  Ratio  and  Pro- 
portion. Impress  particularly  the  fact  that  per  cent. 
means  so  many  hundredths,  without  regard  to  dollars 
and  cents.  I  have  made  it  a  particular  matter  of  no- 
tice, and  have  observed  that  more  than  half  the  pupils 
I  have  had  under  my  care  who  have  gone  through 
the  book  had  the  idea  that  per  cent,  had  reference 
particularly  to  dollars  and  cents.  This  may  seem 
strange  to  a  good  teacher,  but  it  is  a  fact.  I  may 
have  happened  to  have  followed  poor  teachers,  which 
would  account  for  it.  Many  examples  such  as  the 
following  should  be  given  : 

A  man  had  64  hogs.  25  per  cent,  of  them  died. 
How  many  were  left? 

In  studying  Interest,  pupils  should  have  exercise  in 
writing  promissory  notes  and  computing  the  interest 
on  them. 

Explain  Insurance,  Stocks,  Brokerage,  Commission, 
Discount,  Present  Worth,  Taxes,  Customs  and  Duties, 
Bonds,  Coupons,  etc.,  by  familiar  illustrations,  and 
make  them  plainer  than  text-books  usually  do. 

Such  subjects  as  Alligation,  Exchange,  Duodecimals, 
Arithmetical  and  Geometrical  Progression  should  be 
omitted  until  the  pupil  has  had  thorough  drill  on  the 
more  important  parts  of  arithmetic. 

The  subject  of  Mensuration  being  of  practical  value 
to  all  classes  should  receive  considerable  attention. 
Let  the  pupil  measure  the  school-room  and  find  its 


IN    i  OUNTBY   SCHOOLS.  1  1 1 

capacity  in  cubic  feet,  bushels,  gallons,  etc.  Measur- 
ing fields,  corn-cribs,  granaries,  wagon-boxes,  timber, 
etc,  is  of  practical  value  to  farmers9  boys,  and  such 
the  country  teacher  has  mainly  under  his  care. 

The  irregularity  of  attendance  in  country  schools 
is  so  great  that  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  conduct  a 
•  •lass  in  arithmetic  properly.  The  pupil  is  out  of 
school  a  week  and  the  class  has  gone  so  far  ahead  that 
he  can  no  longer  keep  ap  with  it.  Must  the  class  be 
held  back  to  accommodate  such  pupils?  Certainly 
not.  The  teacher  must  have  a  number  of  classes,  so 
that  those  who  are  too  dull,  or  too  irregular  in  attend- 
ance, may  tall  back  and  join  a  lower  class.  If  lie  has 
not  time  to  give  a  regular  recitation  each  day  to  ev- 
er] class,  he  can  give  them  a  drill  on  alternate  days 
and  examples  for  practice  on  intervening  days.  In 
this  way  he  can  manage  to   reach  all.     Tie  should, 

however,  take  noth feach  pupil  every  day  in  some 

manner.  He  may  do  this  by  assigning  one  class  ex- 
amples  to  work  on  the  black-board  while  he  is  con- 
ducting tlic  recitation  for  tin'  other  class.  He  can 
then  devote  a  few  minutes  to  inspecting  the  work  on 
the  board.  Each  pupil  should  !><•  allowed  to  travel 
as  t i i - t  as  he  can,  provided  he  thoroughly  understands 
what  he  passes  over.  An  apt  pupil  should  never  he 
i  back  ■>"  keep  pace  with  a  dull  one 

\i:i:  W.   OBSERVATION 

I  would  call  attention  t..  tin-  following  points,  n. 
of  which  are  a  recapitulation  of  this  chapter: 

1.      A-  a  rule,  teach  •  I   part.-  fir 


112  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

2.  Do  not  hurry  through  the  book,  but  give  plenty 
of  exercises  under  each  subject. 

3.  Teach  processes  first,  principles  next.  Teach 
the  rules  by  stating  the  steps  in  the  process. 

4.  Never  require  rules,  definitions  or  tables  to  be 
committed  to  memory,  but  let  them  be  learned  by  use. 

5.  Let  the  pupil  learn  the  explanations  of  rules 
from  the  book,  the  teacher  only  pointing  them  out 
and  explaining  the  language  of  the  book. 

6.  Pay  particular  attention  to  the  most  practical 
parts  of  arithmetic,  such  as  pupils  will  most  likely 
use  in  after  life. 

7.  Give  preliminary  drill  on  each  new  subject. 

8.  Require  pupils  to  always  use  shortest  methods 
of  obtaining  a  result,  but  insist  on  clearness  of  ex- 
pression and  neatness  of  work. 

9.  An  oral  analysis  of  problems,  involving  only 
numbers  small  enough  to  be  held  in  the  memory, 
should  always  precede  a  written  process.  The  first 
step  then  would  be  the  oral  drill  in  analysis;  second, 
the  written  process,  and  third  the  rule,  which  is 
simply  the  statement  of  the  several  steps  of  the  pro- 
cess. For  example,  the  teacher  should  show  analyti- 
cally that  f  of  -f  is  -j^,  and  then  deduce  the  written 
process  for  finding  a  fraction  of  a  fraction,  or  that  4  is 
25  per  cent,  of  16,  and  from  that  the  process  of  find- 
ing what  per  cent,  one  number  is  of  another,  or  that 
f-f-^  is  1^,  and  deduce  the  process  of  division  of  frac- 
tions and  explain  the  reason  for  inverting  the  divisor. 
There  may  be  some  exceptions  to  this  with  young 
pupils,  as  for  example,  in  finding  the  greatest  com- 
mon divisor  and  least  common  multiple. 

10.  Review  often. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

"Geography  can  not  be  taught  in  any  proper  sense  of  the  word  by 
maps  or  b  bald  and  wearisome  nomenclature  of  countries,  cities, 
mountains  and  rivers.  What  is  wanted  is  that  these  should  be  inti- 
mately blended  with  the  history  of  the  world,  of  nature  and  the  nis- 
lory  of  mankind,  thereby  better  fixing  the  whole  in  the  memory  and 
giving  to  Geography  its  true  rank  among  the  sciences.  The  change 
thus  indicated  is  in  progress,  hut  much  is  still  wanted  for  its  full  ac- 
complishment," Sir  Henry  Holland. 

Geography  as  taught  in  many  schools — merely  by 

question  and  answer,  with  an  occasional  map  drill — is 

of  little  practical  value,  but  in  the  hands  of  a  compe- 

•  instructor  who  teaches,  rather  than  hears  a  class 

ite,  it  is  an  interesting  and  valuable  study. 

It  has  been  my  experience  that  but  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  pupils  of  a  country  Bchool  who  are  of  the 
proper  age  study  Geography.  Upon  inquiry  the  uni- 
versal reason  given  was  that  they  did  not  like  the 
Study.       Now.    whose    fault     is    this?      Certainly    the 

t-  acher's.  The  teacher  should  awaken  an  interest  in 
this  Btudy  in  his  Bchool,  and  the  way  to  do  this  ia  to 
teach  it  properly  and    persuade  pupils  to  enter  the 

class.     If  he  teaches  il  as  he  should  and  suc< ds  in 

_■•  a  pupil  to  enter   the   class   and  remain    one 
k.  E  will  venture  to  a  that  that    pupil  will  re- 

8  (113) 


114  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

main  for  the  whole  term.  In  my  opinion  there  is  no 
study  of  greater  importance.  It  is  a  branch  of  knowl- 
edge which  a  Humboldt,  a  Ritter  and  a  Guyot  have 
adorned,  and  deserves  no  mean  place  among  the 
knowledges  of  the  earth. 

There  need  be  but  two  classes  in  Geography  in  a 
country  school,  a  primary  and  an  advanced. 

"With  a  beginning  class  I  would  proceed  somewhat 
as  follows :  I  am  supposing  the  class  is  composed  of 
pupils  who  have  never  studied  the  subject.  I  would 
begin  with  an  oral  drill  on  direction,  next  develop 
the  idea  of  a  map  by  drawing  a  map  of  the  school 
room.  I  would  draw  the  boundary  lines  on  the 
board,  explaining  that  the  top  of  the  diagram  will 
represent  north,  the  bottom  south,  etc.,  and  ask  the 
pupils  to  step  to  the  board  and  make  a  mark  to  rep- 
resent the  location  of  the  stove,  the  teacher's  desk, 
etc.,  and  proceed  until  the  pupils  themselves  have 
mapped  out  the  school-room  and  located  all  the  prin- 
cipal objects  in  it.  The  next  step  would  be  to  map 
the  school-yard,  locating  the  school-house,  the  out- 
houses, trees  and  other  objects.  I  might  proceed 
from  this  to  the  surrounding  fawns;  but  perhaps 
enough  has  been  shown  to  develop  the  idea  of  a  map, 
that  it  is  a  representation  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
the  earth's  surface.  Next,.  I  may  ask  some  questions 
about  what  is  found  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  By 
a  few  leading  questions  I  will  obtain  from  the  class 
the  facts  that  rivers,  lakes,  mountains,  cities,  towns, 
etc.,  are  to  be  seen  on  the  earth's  surface.  Then  I 
will  tell  them  that  we  are  going  to  learn  all  about 
what  we  would  find  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  if  we 


in   ror'NTKV   schools.  115 

would  travel  over  it,  and  about  the  different  kinds 
of  people  and  what  they  are  doing,  and  many  things 
that  are  very  interesting  and  useful;  that  men  have 
learned  these  things  by  traveling  and  observing  and 
have  written  them  in  hooks  for  us  to  study  that  we 
may  ham  without  traveling  fur  from  home.  With 
this  preliminary  drill  thev  are  ready  to  take  up  a  pri- 
mary work  on  Geography  and  begin  with  the  study 
of  the  form  of  the  earth,  the  divisions  of  land  and 
water,  etc  It'  possible,  use  a  globe  to  illustrate,  if 
not,  get  a  substitute  for  one,  an  apple  or  a  ball.  Ex- 
plain .-Mine  of  the  more  obvious  modes  of  proving  the 
rotundity  of  the  earth.  If  possible  take  the  class  to  a 
lake  shore  or  river  bank  and  Bhow  them  capes,  bays, 
islands,  etc.  Such  objects  can  generally  be  found  on 
a  small  scale  along  a  river  or  lake  shore. 

The  topic  method  of  teaching  Geography  can  be 

made   successful    even   with  beginners,  but   the    topics 

must  be  modified  to  suit  their  capacities. 

kfosl  text-book-;  on  Geography  are  filled  with  ques- 
tion-, and  the  teacher  is  tempted  to  fall  into  a  rote 
manner  of  teaching  and  content  himself  with  asking 
the  questions  and  hearing  the  pupils  answer.  While 
1  would  not  ignore  questions  in  teaching,  I  would  cer- 
tainly try  to  avoid  depending  on  them. 

-  -hoiihl  be  used  by  primary  classes  in  prepar- 
ing their  lessons.  The  name-,  of  all  the  prominent 
object-  of  Btudy  in  the  lesson  should  be  carefully 
written  on  the  -late.  For  example,  l«-t  the  pupil 
write  tie-  words  continent,  island,  cape,  river,  lak  . 
etc.,  "H  the  slate  and  be  required  to  find  the  defini- 


116  METHODS    OP    TEACHING 

tion  of  the  terms  in  the  book.  The  teacher  may 
write  on  the  board  the  principal  points  of  the  lesson 
for  the  pupil  to  copy.  In  studying  a  map  the  teacher 
should  require  the  pupils  to  write  a  certain  number 
of  cities,  rivers,  mountains,  etc.,  allowing  the  pupil  to 
select  what  he  thinks  the  most  important.  Let  the 
pupil  write  also  a  certain  number  of  the  products  of 
a  country,  as  wheat,  corn,  coal,  iron,  gold,  silver,  etc. 
Lessons  may  be  assigned  as  they  are  laid  off  in  the 
book,  but  a  written  exercise  should  always  accom- 
pany them.  Frequent  review  lessons  should  be  given, 
involving  all  points  of  importance  the  pupil  has  passed 
over. 

Map  drills  should  be  had  daily,  sometimes  the 
teacher  pointing  to  the  map  and  the  pupils  answer- 
ing as  called  upon  or  occasionally  in  concert,  and 
sometimes  the  pupils  in  turn  point  out  places  on  the 
map  as  mentioned  by  the  teacher. 

It  is  a  good  exercise  to  take  an  ideal  trip,  as,  for 
example,  starting  with  Chicago,  the  teacher  and  class 
sail  in  imagination  to  New  York,  mentioning  and 
commenting  upon  all  the  prominent  places  of  interest 
they  would  pass  on  the  route.  I  will  here  mention  a 
few  such  routes:  From  London  to  St.  Petersburg' 
via  Gibralter,  following  the  coasts  of  Spain,  Italy  and 
Greece,  and  through  Constantinople  and  Black  sea, 
and  up  the  river  and  overland  across  Russia.  From 
St.  Petersburg,  through  the  Baltic  and  along  coasts  of 
Denmark,  Holland  and  Belgium,  to  London.  From 
London,  again,  to  Pekin,  around  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  via  Calcutta,  From  New  York  to  New  Orleans 
following  coast,  and  from  thence  to  Pittsburg  via  Cin- 


[N     CnlNTIlV    SCHOOLS.  117 

cinnati  and  by  railroad  back  again  to  New  Fork.  A 
whaling  voyage  from  Host  on  to  the  Arctic  ocean.  A 
trip  from  Philadelphia  to  Rio  Janeiro  for  eoflee. 
Buch  exercises  may  be  made  extremely  interesting  to 
children  and  are  excellent  for  review.  Mention  may 
be  made  i>\  the  governments,  races,  productions,  curi- 
osities and  other  peculiarities  of  countries  as  they  are 
pas3<  d  on  these  imaginary  voyages. 

Do  not  attempt  to  teach  too  many  things,  but  by 
frequent  reviews  fix  thoroughly  the  most  important 
points.     For  example,  if  a  pupil  learns  that  a  certain 

State  produces  tlm r  four  certain  staples,  and  can 

tell  whether  it  is  level  or  mountainous,  can  mention 
the  capital  and  largest  city  and  locate  them,  the  prin- 
cipal river  and  lake,  if  any,  and  can  give  its  boun- 
daries and  comparative  size  and  tell  what  direction 
from  his  own  State — if  these  points  are  fixed  by 
thorough  drill  he  will  remember  them  Longer  and  the 
knowledge  be  of  more  practical  benefit  than  if  he  had 
learned  every  little  river,  lake,  town  and  all  the  minn- 

i 

t'm  of  detail,  only  to  be  forgotten  perhaps  before  the 
next  recitation.     (See  page  :59.) 

It  is  a  fjood  idea  to  go  over  the  main  points  of  each 

38  m  in  concert  as  a  kind  of  recapitulation  at  the 
close  of  each  recitation. 

Suggestive  questions,  Buch  as  the  following,  may 
sometimes  be  put  to  primary  cla —  : 

What  city  is  world-renowned  tor  carpets'.''  [nwhat 
citv  would  you  ride  in  a  gondola  instead  of  an  omnibus? 
In  what  country  do  the  women  always  ur<>  out  veiled 
and   the   men  wear  loose,  flowing  robes  and  sit    ei 


118  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

legged  and  smoke  opium?  What  island  is  celebrated 
for  its  peat  bogs,  potatoes,  oats  and  flax  ?  etc.,  etc.  . 

Review  lessons  may  be  given  somewhat  as  follows : 
Each  pupil  is  assigned  a  subject  for  investigation  and 
report,  something  easy,  yet  which  will  require  a 
search  of  the  book,  as,  for  example,  John  is  told  to 
find  all  the  countries  in  which  mention  is  made  of 
gold,  Mary  of  silver,  Henry  of  lions,  "Willie  of  ele- 
phants, Carrie  of  diamonds,  etc.  The  names  of  the 
countries  when  found  may  be  written  on  the  slates, 
which  are  brought  to  the  recitation  and  laid  upon 
the  teacher's  desk.  The  teacher  takes  up  a  slate  and 
calls  on  the  owner  of  it  to  mention  from  memory  as 
much  as  he  can  of  what  he  has  written.  The  others 
may  criticise  errors  and  add  to  it  if  they  can. 

For  primary  classes  it  is  best  that  all  the  pupils  hav& 
the  same  text-book,  but  an  advanced  class  may  be 
taught  entirety  by  the  topic  method,  and  it  is  even 
better  if  each  member  of  the  class  has  a  different  au- 
thor. I  have  used  a  topic  list  something  like  the  fol- 
lowing : 

,     _,    .  .        f  Boundaries, 

1.  Position,  <         .  . 

I  Latitude  and  Longitude. 

2.  Size. 

3.  Mountains  and  surface  generally. 

4.  Rivers  and  lakes. 

-     ,-,         ,.        f  Gulfs,  bays,  straits,  etc. 

5.  Coast  line,  \  r,  .  ,      , 

I  Capes,  islands,  etc. 

6.  Climate. 

C  Animal, 

7.  Productions,  -j   Vegetable, 

[  Mineral. 


IN    COUKTKY    SCHOOLS.  119 

A _rri<iiltiir:il  and  grazing, 
I   Commerce  and  li^ln-ries, 


8.   Occupation-, 

-ing 


I    Minim 

[  Hanoi 


ifactaring. 
0.  Government,  education  and  religion. 

10.  Capital  ami  Largest  city. 

11.  Other  cities  and  places  of  interest.* 

12.  History. 

13.  Population. 

14.  Miscellaneous. 

This  is  to  be  used  in  studying  the  text  of  the  sev- 
eral countries.  It  should  be  written  on  the  black- 
board and  copied  by  the  pupils  and  pasted  in  their 
books.  The  teacher  will  explain  the  outline  where 
necessary.  In  giving  latitude  and  longitude,  coun- 
try -  should  be  compared  with  each  other,  foreign 
countries  with  our  own  States,  and  the  States  with 
each  other.  The  absolute  size  of  a  few  countries 
should  be  remembered,  especially  the  pupil's  own 
State,  and  other  States  and  countries  compared  with 
it.  Very  large  and  very  small  States  and  countries 
should  be  compared,  as  Rhode  [gland  and  Texas, 
England  and  Russia,  etc.  In  Btudying  surface  I  have 
given  mountains  as  the  most  prominent  objects,  but 
the  pupil  sh  »uld  be  led  to  mention  height  above  3ea 
level,  plateau-,  volcanoes,  basins,  water-sheds,  etc. 
The  al  height  of  the  most  important  peak-  in 

each  country  should  be  remembered  and  the  direc- 
tion of  the  mountain  chains  noted.  River-  should  be 
described  by  telling  where  the\'  rise,  what  course  they 
pursue  and  into  what  they  empty.  Rake-,  either 
<>r  fresh,  having  outlets  or  inlets,  both  or  neither, 
depth,  height  al  The  pupil  should 


1-0  METHODS    OP    TEACHING 

be  taught  that  climate  depends  on  latitude,  proximity 
to  or  remoteness  from  large  bodies  of  water,  character 
and  proximity  of  ocean  currents,  height  of  land,  slope, 
character  of  soil,  prevailing  winds,  etc. 

Under  head  of  animal  productions,  the  wild  and  do- 
mestic animals  should  be  mentioned,  and  the  articles 
produced  from  them,  as  furs,  wool,  feathers,  leather, 
tallow,  honey,  beeswax,  glue,  bone-dust,  bone,  horn, 
silk,  etc.  The  vegetable  productions  are  such  as  grain, 
mentioning  the  different  kinds,  fruits,  flax,  potatoes, 
gums,  resins,  medicines,  dye-stuffs,  timber,  turpentine, 
tar,  etc.  The  mineral  productions  are  the  metals, 
building  material,  as  marble,  granite,  limestone,  sand, 
lime,  potter's  clay,  mineral  paints,  precious  stones,  etc. 
Under  the  head  of  commerce  might  be  mentioned 
the  principal  articles  of  export  and  import.  Under 
manufacturing,  the  different  articles  manufactured. 
Under  head  of  history,  if  one  of  the  States  of  the 
Union,  its  first  settlement,  when,  where  and  by 
whom,  date  of  admission,  etc.;  if  other  countries, 
some  of  the  principal  points  in  their  history,  as  great 
battles,  changss  of  government,  etc.  Under  head  of 
miscellaneous,  mention  may  be  made  of  anything  that 
would  be  of  interest  and  which  can  not  well  be 
brought  under  any  of  the  previous  heads,  such  as  na- 
tural curiosities,  races,  languages  and  dialects  spoken, 
peculiar  customs  of  the  people,  national  character,  etc. 

The  above  list  is  flexible  enough  to  adapt  itself  to 
an  advanced  class  in  any  school.  There  is,  of  course, 
great  difference  in  pupils,  and  the  teacher  must  recog- 
nize this  in  teaching  any  branch  and  adapt  his  plans 
to  them.     The  pupil  is  to  be  made  understand  that 


IN    COUNTRY    BCHOOL8.  121 

he  is  expected  to  obtain  the  information  here  out- 
lined, and  it  Deed  not  matter  where  he  obtains  it, 
whether  from  this  author  or  from  that,  or  partly  from 
one  and  partly  from  another.  He  may  learn  from 
travelers,  from  miscellaneous  works  or  from  news- 
papers, from  any  source,  provided  he  gets  the  infor- 
mation in  Buch  a  way  that  he  can  tell  it.  Dull  and 
backward  pupils  will  need  to  he  questioned  to  bring 
out  their  knowledge,  hut  this  should  not  be  done 
where  it  can  be  avoided.  The  pupil  should  be  taught 
to  rely  upon  himself  ami  tell  what  he  knows  without 
being  questioned.  Pupils  who  have  been  taught  in 
the  old  rot.'  manner  may  make  objections  to  this 
manner  of  study,  hut  the  true  teacher  will  soon  win 
them  to  his  own  views.  He  should  explain  to  them 
the  advantages,  and  at  first  modify  the  plan  so  as  not 
to  make  too  sudden  a  change. 

This  topic  list  can  not  he  used  in  all  classes.  Spe- 
cial outlines  should  be  given  in  studying  some  of  the 
points  of  Mathematical  and  Physical  Geography. 
Review  lessons  may  If  given  by  special  outlines;  foi 
example,  lakes  may  be  given  as  a  lesson  and  outlined 
on  the  board  somewhat  as  follows: 

1.  Origin. 

"J.     I    '.   :--■  -. 

l.   A-  tn  character  of  water. 

•j.    \-  t..  outlets  and  inlets. 
::.    Elevation 
4.    I  - 
."..   Principal  lakea  of  tin-  world. 

1.  A.8  to  commercial  importance. 

2.  A-  !••  elevation, 
::.    a-  to  rise. 

1.    A-  to  beautiful  scenery. 
"..   A-  to  any  other  \»  coliarity. 


122  METHODS    OP   TEACHING 

Mountains,  volcanoes,  seas,  gulfs  and  bays,  oceans, 
rivers,  etc.,  may  be  outlined  in  a  similar  manner. 
Such  special  outlines  for  review  are  of  great  practical 
value,  gathering  up,  as  it  were,  the  knowledge  which 
has  been  attained  into  parcels  aud  labeling  them. 

A  special  outline  should  also  be  given  for  the  pu- 
pil's own  State.  This  should  be  very  full  and  mi- 
uute,  embracing  all  the  points  which  would  be  worth 
remembering.  Swinton's  Geography  develops  this 
plan  of  paying  particular  attention  to  home  and  local 
Geography  and  gives  such  an  outline  for  the  study 
of  any  particular  State.  The  teacher,  however,  who 
is  acquainted  with  his  own  State  and  has  paid  some 
attention  to  outlining  can  easily  produce  one  which 
will  suit  his  purpose  better  than  could  be  given  here. 

The  teacher  should  have  a  map  of  the  State  show- 
ing counties  and  townships,  and  if  possible  a  map  of 
the  county.  These  maps  should  be  provided  by 
school  boards  for  every  school-house.  The  teacher 
may,  however,  do  as  I  have  done  in  several  instances, 
draw  on  the  wall  with  colored  chalk  a  map  of  the 
county,  showing  townships,  and  in  the  township  the 
school-house  was  in  showing  school  district,  school 
houses,  roads,  streams,  etc.  I  copied  them  from  bor- 
rowed maps.     (See  p.  187.) 

Some  system  of  map  drawing  should  be  pursued, 
but  I  would  caution  the  teacher  against  making  a 
hobby  of  it.  It  is  a  means  and  not  an  end.  The 
teacher  should  recognize  also  the  different  capacities 
of  his  pupils  in  this  respect.  Some  will  seem  to  have 
a  natural  ability  to  draw,  while  with  others  it  is  a 
difficult  matter  to  interest  them  or  teach  them  to  draw 


IN     rolNTKY    SCHOOLS.  1-' 

even  passably.  Particular  pains  should  betaken  in 
drawing  the  pupil's  own  State,  but  if  it  is  one  diffi- 
cult to  draw  do  not  give  it  as  the  first  lesson.  Prac- 
tice them  in  drawing  some  State  of  regular  and  easy 
outline.  I  need  not  say  anything  further  on  this 
head,  as  all  text-hooks  now  give  instructions  in  map 
drawing. 

For  advanced  pupils  the  teacher  should  prepare 
questions  which  will  lead  them  to  think  and  apply 
their  knowledge,  questions  which  can  not  be  answered 
in  the  language  of  any  hook,  hut  such  as  the  pupil 
must  deduce  the  answer  from  his  own  knowledge  of 
the    facts.     As    an    example    of   such    questions    the 

icherwill  ask  why  New  England  is  a  manufactur- 
ing country;  why  Iowa  and  Illinois  raise  so  many 
hogs;  why  gold  ami  silver  are  not  found  in  Illinois; 
why  sheep  arc  raised  more  extensively  in  Ohio  and 
-  alifornia;  why  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  raise  so 
many  fruits  and  vegetables;  why  Iowa,  Kansas  and 
Nebraska  have  so  few  large  cities;  why  education  is 
not  more  universally  diffused  throughout  the  South- 
ern State-:  why  Indian  corn  is  not  raised  in  Eng- 
land; why  England  has  such  fine  breeds  of  cattle  and 

horses;    what  would    he  the   effect    <>n    the   climate   of 

I-  i |y,  Prance,  Greece  and  Spain  if  the  Deserl  of  Sa- 
hara were  tunic. l  in:  a;  why  the  peculiar  dry  cli- 
mate of  Colorado:  why  80  many  Spanish  names  of 
t  >wi  .  in  the  Territories  and  State-  we-t  of  the 
Mississippi;  why  80  many  French  name-  along  the 
St.  Lawrence  and  Mississippi;  why  Quito,  being  on 
the  equator,  ha-  Buch  a  plea-ant  climate,  etc.  The 
teacher,  who  is  well  versed  in  a  knowledge  of  Ge  "_r- 


124  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

raphy,  as  he  should  be,  can  multiply  such  questions  to 
any  necessary  extent.  A  few  such  questions  should 
be  assigned  at  one  time,  and  the  pupils  allowed  two 
or  three  days  to  prepare  their  answers. 

In  the  hands  of  a  live  teacher  a  class  in  Geography 
may  be  made  the  most  enthusiastic  and  interesting 
class  of  the  school.  There  are  some  points  in  teaching 
Geography  which  may  be  called  Geographical  Recre- 
ations. For  example,  the  origin  and  significance  of 
names  of  places  and  countries.  If  the  teacher  will 
consult  "Webster's  Unabridged  he  wTill  find  material 
of  this  kind.  Also,  the  popular  names  of  cities  and 
States,  as  Garden  City,  Crescent  City,  Hoosier  Stater 
Hawke}re  State,  etc.     (See  p.  — .) 

The  formation  of  some  of  the  physical  features  of 
the  earth's  surface  may  be  illustrated  in  a  simple  and 
pleasing  manner  by  means  of  a  large  tray  made  of 
boards,  in  the  shape  of  a  box,  about  three  inches 
deep  and  two  feet  wide  by  three  or  four  feet  in  length. 
A  dry  goods  box  will  answer  by  cutting  it  down  to 
the  required  depth.  Fill  this  with  wet  sand  to  within 
half  an  inch  of  the  top.  Mountains,  hills,  plateaus 
and  plains  may  be  formed  with  the  sand.  A  volcano 
may  be  made  by  placing  a  piece  of  unslacked  lime  in 
a  mountain  and  wetting  the  sand.  In  a  little  while 
the  lime  will  slack  and  the  sides  of  the  mountain  will 
become  hot  and  crack  open  and  an  opening  appear 
in  the  top,  from  which  will  issue  steam  and  powdered 
lime.  By  inclining  the  tray  and  pouring  a  shower 
of  water  from  a  sprinkling  can,  the  formation  of  riv- 
ers may  be  shown.  If  the  sand  is  so  arranged  that 
the  lowest  part  be  along  the  center  the  water  will 


in    C01  S  I  i:v    BCHOOLS.  125 

collect  and  form  a  Large  river  and  its  tributaries.  The 
washing  down  of  the  mountains  to  form  plains  is  also 
illustrated.  The  formation  of  canons  maybe  illus- 
trated by  taking  clay  and  mixing  it  with  water  until 
a  mud  is  formed,  which,  when  allowed  to  dry  in  the 
sun  or  by  the  lire,  will  crack  open,  making  large  fis- 
sures, and  by  pouring  water  the  fissures  will  be  en- 
larged,  -bowing  how,  in  the  course  of  ages,  the  inter- 
nal heat  of  the  earth  and  the  erosive  action  of  water 
have  due  these  wonderful  ditches. 

The  latitude  of  a  few  prominent  places  should  be 
fixed  in  the  mind.  The  following  is  a  good  exercise 
for  this  purpose:  The  teacher,  taking  a  globe  or  map 
of  the  world,  and  selecting  a  certain  parallel,  say 
KJ  .  savs,  "I  find  on  or  near  this  parallel  Columbus, 
()..  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Koine,  Italy,"  etc.  Then,  se- 
lf.-ting  another,  say  o0°,  he  says,  "  I  find  on  this  Xew 
Orleans,  La.,  St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  etc.  What  is  the 
latitude  of  Philadelphia,  of  New  Orleans,  of  Rome  ?  " 
etc.  Then.,  selecting  another  parallel,  he  adds  a  few 
more  places  and  asks  questions  promiscuously  as 
before,  the  pupils  answering  in  concert.  In  this  way 
a  short  drill  occasionally  will  tix  the  latitude  of  the 
most  prominent  places  in  the  world  in  the  pupil's 
memory.  Other  places  may  be  compared  with  them. 
For  example,  if  one  wishes  to  know  the  Latitude  of 
.Mobile,  Ala.,  he  has  <>uly  to  remember  that  it  is  a 
little  further  north  than  New  Orleans,  and  therefore 
near  80°.     About   ten  years  ago   I   participated  in  a 

drill  of  this    kind    at  a  teachers'  institute  in  which  T. 

W.  Harvey  was  instructor, and  I  do  uol  think  I  -ball 

ever  forget  the  latitude  of  a  number  of  places  I  there 


126  METHODS   OF   TEACHING.  ' 

learned  in  a  few  minutes'  drill.  The  teacher  who  is 
alive  to  his  work  will  find  many  such  expedients  as  I 
have  here  given,  and  will  need  no  further  suggestions 
from  me  in  regard  to  teaching  Geography. 


CHAPTER  V. 

GRAMMAR. 

J.  R.  Sypher,  in  "The  Art  of  Teaching  School,'* 
Bays:  "If,  in  the  spelling  classes,  the  uses  of  capital 
letters  and  punctuation  marks  have  been  noted — as 
should  be  the  case  in  spelling  from  dictation  and  dis- 
course— and  if,  in  the  reading  classes,  the  structure 
of  sentences,  the  meaning  of  words  and  the  uses  of 
punctuation  marks  have  been  properly  studied,  there 
is  little  remaining  to  be  taught  on  the  subject  of  Gram- 
mar, to  pupils  in  the  public  schools,  that  properly 
comes  within  the  scope  of  these  institutions."  There 
is  touch  truth  in  this.  I  have  advocated  particular 
attention  to  defining,  punctuation,  use  of  capitals,  etc., 
in  reading  and  spelling  classes,  because  these  points 
are  essential  to  the  practical  every-day  duties  of  life, 
and  from  the  fact  that  comparatively  few  pupils  who 
nd  our  country  schools  ever  take  up  the  study  of 
( trammar. 

The  country  teacher  is  expected  t<>  have  a  class  in 
Grammar,  and  it  Bhould  be  taught  in  our  country 
schools,  but  I  protest  against  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  usually  taught.  There  is  ne  need  of,  nor  no  time 
for,  a  primary  text-book  in  Grammar  in  a  country 
school,   and    indeed    in   any  other  school.      The   pri- 

(127) 


128  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

mary  instruction  in  Grammar  should  be  given  in 
reading  and  spelling  classes,  and  by  general  criticisms 
and  oral  drills  in  connection  with  every  other  subject. 
That  is,  the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  use  the  English 
language  properly.  All  written  and  oral  exercises 
where  the  pupil  is  required  to  use  language  are  exer- 
cises in  Grammar.  The  teacher  should  always  use 
accurate  language,  and  correct  every  error  made  by 
the  pupils.  This  should  be  carried  to  the  play-ground, 
and  everywhere  the  pupil  comes  in  contact  with  the 
teacher,  provided  it  can  be  done  without  giving  ofl'ense 
to  any  one.  Primary  Grammar  should  consist  of 
language  lessons,  and  every  lesson,  on  whatever  sub- 
ject, should  be  also  a  language  lesson.  I  am  using 
the  word  "Grammar''  in  the  sense  understood  from 
the  definitions  given  by  nearly,  if  not  all,  writers  of 
text-books  on  the  subject,  and  from  the  definition  of 
the  term  given  by  Webster — that  is,  that  it  is  the 
science  which  teaches  us  how  to  use  language  cor- 
rectly. Wickersham,  in  "Methods  of  Instruction," 
page  246,  says :  "  Grammar  is  the  science  of  sen- 
tences. *  *  *  Grammar  is  not  an  art.  Compo- 
sition treats  of  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing." 
Hon.  E.  E.  White,  in  "The  National  Teacher,"  says: 
"  Notwithstanding  Lindley  Murray's  definition,  Gram- 
mar is  not  the  means  for  acquiring  the  art  of  speak- 
ing and  writing  correctly.  It  is  at  best  only  the 
finishing  instrument.  The  correct  use  of  language 
must  be  learned,  as  every  other  art  is  learned,  by  prac- 
tice under  intelligent  guidance.  School  training  should 
furnish  this  practice  in  a  large  measure.  There  can 
not  well  be  too  much  of   it.     It  should  enter  into 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  129 

every  recitation,  and  besides  have  a  separate  place  in 
the  daily  programme.  <  Somposition  should  be  taught 
as  faithfully  as  arithmetic." 

I  give  these  extracts  for  what  they  arc  worth. 
They  simply  show  the  difficulty  of  defining  terms. 
I  will  add  that  it  is  the  duty  of  teachers  to  teach  that 
which  will  cause  pupils  to  think,  and  at  tin-  same 
time  to  express  their  thoughts,  cither  with  the  tongue 
or  pen,  in  the  most  fluent,  elegant  and  correct  man- 
ner. They  can  be  led  to  improve  their  thinking  pow- 
ers to  a  greater  or  less  degree  by  the  study  of  any  sub- 
ject  whatever;  and  the  power  of  expressing  thought 
i-  taught  under  the  heads  of  Reading,  Spelling,  De- 
tiring.  Grammar,  Rhetoric,  Composition,  Elocution, 
Oratory,  etc.  I  will  refer  the  reader  to  the  definitions 
terms  given  by  Webster  and  by  the  various 
authors  of  text-books  on  the  respective  subjects. 

The  question,  with  the  country  teacher  having  a 
class  before  him  with  text-books  in  Grammar  in 
their  hands,  is,  what  part  of  the  book  shall  be  taught. 
I  will  answer  in  a  general  way  by  saying,  teach  that 
which  will  aid  them  most  in  expressing  thought, 
either  by  tongue  or  pen.     But,  to  be  mor  ific,  I 

will  BUppose  a  class  who  have  never  studied  the  >ul>- 

•t  technically  to  have  in  their  hands  Barvey's,  or 
blolbrook's,  or  (Mark's,  or  Adam-',  or  any  other  9U 
able  text-book    for  common   schools,   and   I  will   t--,l 
i  where  I  think  you  <>nurht  to  begin. 

The  first  lesson  in  technical  Grammar  should  be  on 
the  structure  of  simple  Bentenc 

Write  a  word,  a-  run,  on  the  blackboard.    Ask  the 

d 


130  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

class  to  tell  you  the  name  of  something  that  runs. 
They  will  probably  say :  "  Horses  run,"  "  A  dog 
runs,"  "  Water  runs,"  etc.  You  may  tell  them  that 
it  is  not  correct,  and  they  can  see  that  it  would  not 
sound  well  to  sa}'  "Horses  runs,"  or  "A  dog  run." 
Next  you  may  write  the  sentence,  Horses  run,  on  the 
board,  and  tell  them  that  it  is  a  thought  expressed  in 
words  and  is  called  a  sentence.  Then  give  an  exer- 
cise in  producing  sentences.  Have  the  class  give  half 
a  dozen  sentences  similar  to  this,  and  you  may  write 
them  on  the  board.  Next  you  may  teach  them  the 
principal  parts  of  a  sentence,  the  subject  and  predi- 
cate. Be  sure  that  pupils  have  a  clear  idea  of  these 
terms.  I  remember  that  when  a  boy  studying  Gram- 
mar the  definitions  of  subject  and  predicate  were 
for  a  Ions;  time  not  understood.  I  did  not  know 
what  was  meant  by  affirmed,  when  the  book  and 
teacher  said,  "The  subject  is  that  of  which  some- 
thing is  affirmed."  It  sounded  big  and  frightful,  and 
I  never  had  a  clear  idea  until  I  saw  somewhere  the 
definition,  "  The  subject  is  that  of  which  something 
is  said  or  written."  Now,  I  might  have  been  an 
unusually  dull  boy — in  some  respects  I  know  I  was — 
but  are  there  not  dull  boys  in  every  class?  The  best 
teacher  makes  a  subject  plain  to  the  dullest  in  his 
class.  Give  plenty  of  oral  exercises,  somewhat  as  fol- 
lows: Chalk  is  brittle.  What  is  brittle  ?  What  is 
said  about  chalk?  What  is  the  subject  of  this  sen- 
tence? Why?  What  is  the  predicate ?  Why?  Re- 
quire class  to  write  three  or  four  sentences  for  each 
lesson.  Write  a  word,  as  "  Fire,"  on  the  board.  Ask 
the  class  to  write  as  many  predicates  as  they' can  to< 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  181 

this  subject:  also  write  a  predicate,  and  require  them 
to  write  a  number  of  subjects.  Most  text-books  now 
give  model  exercises  wbfch  will  suggest  the  oral  drill 
to  the  teacher. 

After  several  lessons  on  the  simple  SQntence,  and 
when  the  pupils  thoroughly  understand  the  principal 
parts  of  a  sentence,  I  would  study  the  noun.  The 
first  lesson  would  be  an  outline  of  the  noun,  to  be 
made  out  by  teacher  and  pupils.  The  teacher  writes 
the  main  heads  and  tells  where  to  write  the  subordi- 
nate parts.  The  outline,  when  completed,  will  stand 
as  follow-,  the  parts  in  italics  showing  what  was 
written  by  the  teacher  and  those  in  Roman  the  parts 
fiPed  in  by  the  pupils: 

Noun. 

Classes. 

■  red. 

Common. 

Proper. 

in/. 
Abstract. 
Verbal. 
Collective. 

<  'lass. 

Propa-t 

l.r. 

Masculine. 

!'•  -.'I'miti'-. 
1      :nm<>n. 

s 


132  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

Person. 

First. 

Second. 

Third. 

Number. 

Singular. 
Plural. 

Case. 

Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 

Absolute. 

Pupils  who  have  had  exercise  in  outlining  in  other 
studies,  perhaps  would  be  able  to  produce  the  above 
without  the  aid  of  the  teacher.  But  this  is  intended 
to  be  merely  suggestive,  and  the  teacher  must  pro- 
ceed according  to  the  circumstances  present.  Several 
lessons  may  be  made  from  this  outline,  discussing  all 
the  parts  until  a  pretty  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
noun  is  secured,  so  far  as  can  be,  without  reference 
to  other  parts  of  speech.  The  parsing  of  nouns,  so 
far  as  the  pupil  is  able  from  what  he  has  learned,  and 
exercises  in  writing  sentences  containing  nouns,  illus- 
trating their  properties  and  classes,  should  be  a  part 
of  every  lesson.  The  advantage  of  writing  parsing 
lessons  will  be  obvious  to  any  thinking  teacher.  It 
will  secure  exercise  in  spelling,  punctuation,  capitali- 
zation and  penmanship,  will  be  more  interesting,  and 
lead  to  definite  and  accurate  thinking.  The  teachers 
should  have  some  particular  order  of  parsing,  and 
require  all  pupils  to  follow  it.     In  another  place  will 


IN    COUNTRY    .-<  1IOOLS.  133 

b  given  models  for  the  written  parsing  of  each  part 
of  speech. 

In  a  similar  manner  to  the  noun  the  verb  may  be 
studied.  An  outline  giving  classes  and  properties  is 
to  be  made  out  and  the  different  parts  of  it  dis- 
cussed. The  more  difficult  parts  may  be  omitted 
until  a  future  time,  taking  only  such  as  are  usually 
given  in  large  print  in  text-hooks.  This  outline  is 
to  be  studied  the  same  as  the  outline  of  the  noun, 
taking  a  -mail  portion  at  each  lesson,  and  giving  oral 
and  written  exercises  as  before. 

The  next  step  is  to  introduce  the  ohjective  element 
into  the  sentenee.  The  pupil  now  will  understand 
that  a  sentenee  must  have  a  subject  and  a  predicate, 
and  may  have  an  object.  The  pronoun  maybe  stud- 
next,  to  be  followed  by  the  adjective,  adverb, 
preposition,  conjunction  and  interjection,  each  to  be 
outlined  and  discussed  as  ahove.  After  a  discussion 
of  tlit;  adjective,  adverhial  and  independent  elements 
of  a  sentence,  a  review  of  the  parts  of  speech,  begin- 
ning again  with  the  UOUU,  should  be  had,  studying 
them  in  their  relations  to  each  other.  This  time  the 
pupils  can  make  the  outlines  themselves,  adding  all 
the  minor  points.  Compound  and  complex  sentences 
may  next  be  considered,  and  the  lessons  varied  with 
plenty  of  written  exercises  in  parsing,  writing  Ben- 
tences  ami  diagramming. 

The  teacher  is  now  ready  to  introduce  the  Bubject 
of  composition  writing.  This  is  a  great  bugbear  to 
mosl  pupils  in  country  Bchools,  but  it  is  the  fault  of 
no  one  but    the  teacher.      I    remember,  when   a  boy. 


134  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

attending  a  term  of  school  taught  by  a  lady  who  re- 
quired, every  Friday,  a  composition  from  each  pupil 
who  was  old  enough  to  write.  By  dint  of  coaxing 
and  threatening  she  succeeded  in  getting  every  one 
to  try  but  me.  I  was  obstinate,  and  no  coaxing  or 
threatening  would  induce  me  to  attempt  what  I  was 
confident  I  could  not  do.  The  pupils  wrote  compo- 
sitions on  such  subjects  as  Spring,  Autumn,  sunset, 
education,  and  their  thoughts  and  language  were 
almost  sublime.  It  is  said  there  is  but  one  step  from 
the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous.  They  had  almost  taken 
that  step  backward.  Years  afterward  I  attended  a 
select  school,  and  the  teacher  was  a  true  teacher,  and 
instead  of  requiring  us  to  write  compositions  he 
taught  us  how  to  write  them,  and  then  it  was  only 
necessary  to  give  us  the  privilege. 

Sentence  writing  is  the  first  step  to  composition 
writing,  and  if  the  teacher  has  thus  far  given  suffi- 
cient exercise  in  that  branch  the  next  step  will  be 
easy  enough.  All  that  is  necessary  for  a  composition 
is  to  put  together  a  number  of  sentences  relating  to 
the  same  subject.  But  no  one  can  write  sentences  or 
composition  unless  he  has  somethiug  to  write  about. 
A  single  word  is  not  sufficient  for  a  subject  for  a  be- 
ginner. He  must  have  an  outline  or  skeleton  of  what 
he  is  going  to  write  about.  This  the  teacher  must 
provide,  and  he  must  give  instruction  on  points  of 
the  outline,  at  first,  until  the  pupil  has  acquired  suffi- 
cient skill  and  command  of  language  and  power  of 
thought  to  construct  the  outline  for  himself. 

Beginners,  if  left  to  themselves,  will  generally 
choose  some  broad  theme,  as  Education,  Iutemper- 


IN    COUNTRY     -<  HoOI.s.  135 

ance,  etc.,  not  knowing  that  it  is  far  easier  to  write 
on  a  more  restricted  Bubject.  Men  of  such  broad  and 
liberal  culture  as  Eerbert  Spencer  may  take  Bucb  a 
Bnbject  as  Education  for  an  essay.  The  brilliant 
yists  of  this  country,  as  Whipple,  Lowell  and 
Holland,  may  take  for  their  themes  Humanity,  Lib- 
erty, Truth,  etc,  but  a  beginner  should  choose  some- 
thing more  concrete  and  restricted,  such  as  Wheat, 
Apples,  Dogs,  Cats,  A  Walk  in  the  Country,  What  I 
Saw  ac  the  Fair,  etc 

The  simplest  form  of  essay  writing,  perhaps,  is  to 
write  a  number  of  questions  and  require  the  pupil  to 
write  out  the  answers  in  full  and  connect  them  to- 
gether. For  example,  let  me  suppose  the  subject  to 
be  "My  Dog."  The  teacher  will  write  a  series  of 
questions,  as  follow.-:  Have  you  a  dog?  What  kind 
of  a  dog  is  he?  What  is  his  color?  Has  he  long 
hair?  What  kind  of  a  tail  has  he?  Will  he  bark  at 
strangers?  I-  he  cross?  Will  he  do  what  you  tell 
him?  Will  vou  name  some  of  the  smart  things  he 
can  do?  Does  he  dislike  children?  What  is  his 
name? 

Thi  i\\  when   written,  will    appear  something 

like  th.-  following: 

MY   DOG. 

I  have  a  lai       '■    rfoandland  dog.     II'-  is  all  over  black,  except  a 

white  ring  around  his  neck.     II<-  baa  long,  shaggy  hair,  and  his  tail 

nd  bushy  and  cnrla  up  over  hi*  back.     !!•   will  1  >:irk  atstran- 

bnt  he  i-  d  and  will  not  l>it«-  any  one  unless  li<-  t ii inks 

they  are  :ji<t h i hl:.     II.-  will  do  almost  anything  I  tell 

him.     He  will  bring  thi  nd  horses  up  from  the  meadow,  will 

sticks  out  of  ti  .  and  carry  a  basket  in  lii-  month.    He  ia 

hildren,  but  will  lit  them  ride  on  hia  back  <>r  jmll  him 

round,  and  -  enjoy  the  fun.     His  nam<  i-  King. 


136  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

A  few  such  exercises  as  the  above  will,  to  use  a 
common  expression,  get  pupils  in  the  way  of  writing- 
compositions.  It  is  frequently  necessary  to  resort  to 
such  expedients  to  get  pupils  interested  and  started, 
after  which  they  may  become  the  best  of  writers.  I 
have  no  doubt  that  the  name  Composition  has  fright- 
ened many  a  person  who,  by  proper  training,  would 
have  made  a  good  writer. 

The  next  easiest  kind  of  composition  is  that  of  let- 
ter writing.  Familiar  letters  to  friends,  giving  an 
account  of  a  party,  a  sleigh-ride,  a  picnic,  a  descrip- 
tion of  their  homes  or  their  school-house,  telling 
what  work  they  have  done  or  what  studies  they  are 
pursuing,  or  anything  else  which  may  interest  them, 
may  be  written  by  pupils  in  a  Grammar  class.  There 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  getting  the  majority  of  pupils 
in  such  a  class  to  try  their  skill  at  such  work.  There 
may  be  some  who  will  refuse,  either  from  diffidence 
or  from  stubbornness,  to  attempt  anything  of  the 
kind,  but  by  kind  endeavor,  by  argument,  they  may 
be  won  over  by  the  teacher. 

The  teacher  should  not  be  too  severe  in  criticising 
compositions  of  beginners;  rather  praise  than  con- 
demn, confining  criticisms  at  first  entirely  to  spelling, 
capitalization,  grammatical  errors  and  the  more  im- 
portant parts  of  punctuation.  As  the  pupil  acquires 
more  skill  in  the  use  of  the  pen  in  conveying  thought 
the  criticisms  may  extend  to  the  matter  of  elegance, 
style,  etc.  After  exercise  in  writing  compositions 
from  questions  and  in  writing  letters  of  friendship, 
easy  descriptions  may  be  attempted.     The  following 


IN    C(>r>TRY    SCHOOLS. 


137 


outline  and  essay  on  "Stoves"  will  be  suggestive  of 
this  kind  *>(  oxereise: 


"With  regard  to  use: 

Cooking. 

Beating. 

With  regard  to  shp.pe: 

Box. 

Cannon. 

Plain. 

Ornamental. 

With  regard  to  fuel: 

Wu.,d. 

Coal. 

Gas. 

Oil. 


Stow.  Kinds. 

Definition. 

Parts. 

Top. 

Bottom. 

Bides. 

Dour--. 

Body. 

Hinges. 
Lhls. 
Ovens. 

Water  reservoir. 
Hearth. 
Dampers. 
Pipe. 
Fines. 

A-h  pan. 
Mica  doors. 
( irate. 

SToVI - 

A  stove  is  an  iron  box,  arranged  in  BUch  a  manner  that  a  fire  cart 
be  made  in  it  and  the  smoke  and  gas  conducted  out  of  tin-  room,  and 
i-  used  for  the  purpose  of  heating  room-  ami  for  cooking  food,  etc 

So:  -  have  a  tlat  fop  with  holts,  which  arc  covered  with  lids, 

for  the  purpose  oi  cooking,  heating  water,  etc.    Others  have  round 
or  irregular  shape)  tops,  made  more  for  ornament  than  for  use.    The 

are  generally  ornamented  with  raised  designs.  Some  are  pro- 
vided with  orena  for  baking  purposes.  Under  the  oven  there  are 
ihi.-  for  conducting  the  heated  air.    In  front  there  is  a  receptacli 

call.  .1  the  hearth,  containing  sometimes  ■  pan  t . .  hold  the  s 
which  can  be  lifted  out  ami  emptied  when  full.    An  arrangement  is 

made  in  the  Hue  or   pip.-   t..  open  "r  -hut,  to  r.  gulate  the  draft.      It    is 

called  a  damp.r     8l       -  for  burning  coal  ban  to  hold  the 

coal  up,  so  that  "the  a-h.  -  will  separate.    All  stoves  have  doors  with 

hingl  -       9  these  doors   have  little  windows  with  a    transpar- 

ent mineral  called   mica  in  them,  instead  of  I  .uld  not 


138  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

be  used,  as  the  heat  would  crack  it.  These  little  windows  make  a 
.stove  look  very  pretty,  as  through  them  we  can  see  the  glowing  fire. 
I  like  to  sit  and  look  at  the  bright,  glowing  coals. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  stoves.  We  may  divide  them  into  kinds 
with  regard  to  use,  as  cooking  stoves  and  heating  stoves,  or  with  regard 
to  shape  and  style,  as  box,  cannon,  plain  and  ornamental  stoves ;  also 
with  regard  to  the  fuel  used,  as  wood,  coal,  oil  and  gas  stoves.  Some 
stoves  are  very  pretty  pieces  of  furniture,  and  cost  a  great  deal  of 
money. 

There  are  many  familiar  objects  which  would  be 
much  easier  to  describe  than  a  stove.  I  have  o-iven 
this  as  an  example  of  what  may  be  done  by  almost 
any  pupil  old  enough  to  use  a  text-book  in  Grammar. 
Many  pupils  could  write  a  far  better  description  than 
the  one  given  above.  The  teacher  should  make  sug- 
gestions upon  the  outline,  giving  facts  which  the  pu- 
pil may  not  be  possessed  of  and  hints  in  regard  to 
describing  the  different  parts.  The  points  in  the 
above  outline  may  be  drawn  from  the  class  b}7  judi- 
cious questioning.  These  essays  need  not  be  long. 
Better  write  short  compositions,  and  have  them  well 
written,  than  long  ones  badly  composed. 

I  have  found  that  children,  and  indeed  all  of  us,  do 
not  lack  so  much  for  language  as  we  do  for  ideas,  or 
rather  ideas  in  a  classified  and  connected  form.  This 
exercise  of  outlining  furnishes  a  means  of  arranging 
our  ideas  in  a  proper  shape  so  that  we  can  write  or 
speak  of  one  thing  at  a  time  and  in  a  proper  order. 
In  this  way  we  need  not  repeat  nor  omit  anything, 
for  the  plan  and  order  of  what  we  are  going  to  say  is 
mapped  out  for  us.  One  will  indeed  be  astonished 
at  his  own  knowledge  when  he  sees  it  thus  arranged 
and  spread  out  before  him. 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  139 

After  exercises  in  easy  description,  subjects  in  sim- 
ple narration  may  be  given.  Let  the  pupils  narrate 
what  they  <li<l  during  the  previous  day  or  week.  In 
the  lives  of  the  humblest  individuals  enough  trans- 
pires almost  every  <lay,  if  all  the  miuuthe  were  writ- 
ten, to  make  quite  a  lengthy  composition.  Any  one 
can  certainly  say  more  than  Mark  Twain  said  in  his 
diary  which  he  kept  when  a  boy,  viz:  "Got  up, 
washed  and  went  to  bed."  This  was  all  he  could 
think  of  each  day  to  write  in  his  diary,  so  he  kept 
repeating  it  day  after  day  until  it  became  tiresome, 
and  he  abandoned  the  idea  of  keeping  a  diary.  Let 
a  pupil  narrate  all  the  actions  in  order  as  he  can  call 
them  to  mind,  from  getting  up  in  the  morning  to 
going  to  bed  al  night.  For  example,  let  me  enumer- 
ate Borne  of  th..-  actions  of  a  boy  during  one  day: 
Got  up.  washed  his  face,  combed  his  hair,  ate  his 
breakfast  (here  I  might  enumerate  the  different  arti- 
cles of  food  eaten,  tell  some  things  that  were  said  at 
the  table.,-  .),  carried  in  wood,  chopped  wood,  fed 
the  horses,  cows,  sheep  and  pigs,  carried  water,  went 
to  a  neighbor's  on  an  errand,  started  to  school,  me1 
pome  other  boys,  played  awhile  on  the  road,  was  late 

lied  and  recited  the  various  lessons  (i 
I  might  tell  some  things  that  he  learned), played  cer- 
tain  games  at    noon   and   re<  Mile  bom,',  did   the 
chores,  which    I  need  no:  enumerate,  being  the  same 
as  he  did  in  the  morning,  ate  -upper  and  went  to  bed. 
Have  1  omitted  anything?     Yes,  I  did  not  Bay  he 
dinner.      Now,  '    I  a  boy  tell   all   this  in  his  own  way, 
Bubji    •  ■     '    •       iticisms  of  hi 
and  he  will  have  quite  a  little  p  :    narration,  and 


140  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

the  foundation  may  be  laid  for  a  future  journalist. 
Let  the  pupils  give  an  account  of  some  accident 
which  happened  in  the  neighborhood,  or  of  a  quar- 
rel which  took  place  on  the  play-ground,  or  an  ac- 
count of  a  trip  to  some  town,  river  or  lake,  or  an  ac- 
count of  an  excursion,  a  picnic,  or  a  visit  to  a  factory 
or  foundry. 

This  essay  writing  should  be  given  in  connection 
with  a  review  of  the  points  of  technical  Grammar, 
and  need  not  be  a  daily  exercise.  Perhaps  about  two 
days  out  of  the  week  may  be  profitably  devoted  to 
this ;  the  other  three  to  written  and  oral  lessons  in 
parsing  and  analysis.  This  matter  will,  however, 
vary  with  circumstances.  The  teacher  must  be  the 
judge. 

Grammar  need  not  be  considered  a  dry,  hard  study 
if  it  is  properly  taught.  As  before  stated,  there 
should  be  but  one  class  in  Grammar  in  a  country 
school,  but  that  class  should  have,  on  an  average, 
seven  or  eight  pupils,  instead  of  two  or  three,  as  is 
the  case  in  schools  which  have  come  under  my  ob- 
servation. 

I  append  a  few  models  for  the  written  parsing  of  the 
parts  of  speech,  as  being  suggestive  to  the  teacher: 

NOUN. 

John  studies  grammar. 

John,  n.,  prop.,  masc,  third,  sing.,  norm,  subj.  of 
the  prop.,  John  studies  grammar.  R.  The  subject 
of  a  proposition,  etc. 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  141 

PRONOUN. 

I  bought  the  book. 

1.  pron.,  pers.,  simp.,  antec,  name  of  the  person 
speaking,  masc,  first,  sing.,  ft.  [Here  give  rule  for 
agreement.]  nom.,  subj.  of  the  prop.,  I  bought  the 
book.     R.     [Here  give  rule  for  construction.] 

1  remember  what  you  said. 

What,  pron.,  rel.,  equivalent  to  that  which,  that  be- 
ing the  antec.  part  and  which  the  relative. 

That,  adj.,  pronom.,  used  as  a  noun,  obj.,  object  of 
v.  remember. 

Which,  pron.,  rel.,  antec.  that,  neat.,  third,  sing., 
obj.,  object  of  v.  said.     11. 

VERB. 

IAbi  rty  is  sweet. 

Is,  v.,  irreg.  (am,  was  bring,  been,)  intrans.,  indie, 
pros.,  third,  sing.,  agrees  with  subj.  lib,  rty.     R. 

ADVERB. 

JL  acti  d  wisi  ly. 

Wisely,  adv.  (comp.  wisely,  more  wisely,  most  wise- 
ly.) of  manner,  modifies  v.  acted.     EL 

AIUl-i  TI\  B. 

diligi  nt  boy  will  /■■  ,/. 

Diligent,  adj.,  descrip.,  com.,  (comp.  diligent,  more 
diligent,  most  diligent)  p08.  qualities  n.  boy. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

HISTORY. 

History  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  studies,  yet 
I  venture  to  say  of  those  who  have  considerable  know- 
ledge of  history,  that  they  did  not  obtain  much  of  it 
in  school.  History  is  a  narration  of  events.  No  one 
has  a  memory  sufficient  to  retain  all  events  which 
have  been  made  known  to  him.  The  great  mistake 
made  by  too  many  teachers  is,  that  they  try  to  teach 
History  in  detail,  and  the  pupils,  in  trying  to  remem- 
ber all,  remember  but  little.  It  is  like  trying  to  take  up 
a  dozen  eggs  at  once  in  one  hand.  In  the  endeavor 
to  grasp  all  we  get  none.  Could  we,  indeed,  remem- 
ber all  the  details  of  History,  of  what  benefit  would 
it  be  ?  It  is  only  the  great  events  and  the  lessons  to 
be  drawn  from  them  which  are  of  benefit  to  us.  I 
remember  studying  History  in  a  country  school,  years 
asro.  We  read  a  lesson  over  and  the  teacher  asked 
us  all  the  questions  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 
We  answered  many  of  them  and  generally  in  the 
language  of  the  author.  The  teacher  pronounced  us 
good  scholars,  but  to-day  I  can  scarcely  recall  a  single 
event  learned  from  that  book.  I  distinctly  remember 
the  portraits  of  Washington  and  Daniel  Webster, 
miserable  wood  cuts,  that  had,  I  suppose,  a  faint  re- 

(142) 


IN    COUNTRY   SCHOOLS.  143 

semblance  to  the  shadows  of  those  great  men,  also  a 
picture  representing  the  death  of  General  Wolfe,  and 
that  the  book  was  hound  in  black  cloth  and  had  red 
edges,  and  that  is  about  all  I  can  remember.  I  have 
since  then  taken  considerable  interest  in  reading  His- 
tory in  course;  but  I  can  say  that  I  learned  far  more 
that  has  been  of  real  benefit  to  me  by  teaching  it, 
and  my  success  I  ascribe  to  the  fact  that  I  tried  to 
select  a  few  of  the  most  important  events  and  their 
dates  to  fix  in  the  minds  of  my  pupils,  and  in  doing 
so,  I  learned  them  myself. 

Tlie  greater  number  of  the  text-books  on  History 
used  iu  our  schools  are  failures,  even  in  the  hands  of 
good  teachers.  Why?  Because  they  are  but  masses 
of  dry  details.  Why  not  give  only  the  most  impor- 
tant events  and  illustrate  them  by  anecdote  and  by  a 
felicitous  mode  of  relating  them,  rather  than  cata- 
logue-like paragraphs,  giving  only  the  dry  bones  or 
chronology  of  the  subject.  There  may  be  others,  but 
thus  far  1  have  seen  but  one  book  which  meets  my 
ideas  of  a  good  school  Bistory.  It  is  Barnes'  Brief 
History  of  the  United  States,  published  by  A.  S. 
Barnes  A  ( !o.,  New  York  and  ( Ihicago.    If  the  teacher 

have   not    such  a  work   he   should    have    hall'  a   dozen 

different  authors  and  be  well  read  iii  different  works, 

that    he    may,   when    lie    ha-    selected    the    important 

points,  so  ill  them  that  pupils  will  remember 

them  in  spite  of  themseb 

The  main  point  in  learning  History  is  to  make 
many    minor    events    cluster  and    crystallize    around 

some  important  tact  which  Bhould  be  learned  as  thor- 
oughly as  the   multiplication   table.     The  association 


144  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

of  ideas  aids  much  in  the  study  of  History.  Why 
do  we  all  remember  who  General  Greene  was?  Be- 
cause he  figured  in  the  Revolution,  and  that  is  one  of 
the  events  which  will  be  remembered  the  easiest  by 
all  readers  of  History.  So,  when  we  think  of  the 
Revolution,  we  think  of  a  hundred  other  things  more 
or  less  directly  connected  with  it. 

The  best  way  probably  to  teach  history  is  to  re- 
quire the  pupils  to  write  essays  on  historical  subjects, 
but  this  is  impracticable  in  country  schools.  The 
next  best  plan  is  to  assign  each  pupil  a  topic  for  in- 
vestigation and  report.  A  lesson  of  considerable 
length  may  be  assigned  the  class,  dividing  it  up  into 
portions,  giving  each  pupil  a  certain  subject  to  inves- 
tigate especially,  but  expecting  him  to  read  the  whole 
lesson  over  several  times  carefully.  Certain  portions 
of  the  lesson  may  be  read  at  recitation,  the  same  as 
in  a  reading  class;  then  each  pupil  is  required  to  re- 
port on  his  topic,  others  criticising  and  adding  to  it 
if  possible.  In  this  way  the  whole  lesson  may  be 
brought  out,  and  by  class  drill  on  the  most  important 
parts,  and  by  daily  reviews,  a  pretty  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  whole  subject  may  be  obtained.  The  most 
important  parts  should  be  reviewed  until  fixed,  and 
then  the  lesser  details  maybe  taken  up.  Remember- 
ing dates  is  not  the  whole  of  studying  history,  but  it 
is  an  important  part  of  it.  Some  persons  have  a 
much  better  memory  of  dates  than  others.  I  would 
have  a  class  remember  a  few  important  dates  first, 
and  gradually  add  to  them  until  I  had  all  the  dates 
of  importance.  The  teacher  should  write  on  the 
board  two  columns  of  dates;  one  in  large  characters 


IN    COUNTRY    BCHOOLS.  145 

the  other  in  small.  Among  tlie  large  characters  he 
may  put  1492,  1565,  1607,  L620,  L754,  L776,  etc.  The 
events  connected  with  these  dates  may  be  first  stud- 
ied, each  one  made  a  lesson.  A>  the  lesser  points  are 
brought  out  the  dates  may  be  placed  in  the  second 
column  Reviews  should  be  had  daily  until  each 
member  of  the  class  can  relate  the  event  connected 
with  the  dates  in  the  lirst  column:  then  the  dates  in 
the  Becond  column  should  be  reviewed  until  they  are 
learned.  A  few  only  may  be  placed  in  the  second 
column,  and  a  third  column  of  still  lesser  dates  be 
mad.'.  The  point  is  to  learn  the  most  important 
lirst,  and  then  those  of  less  importance,  and  so  on  as 
many  as  are  likely  to  be  permanently  remembered. 

Instead  of  keeping  a  class  a  whole  term  on  a  few 
pages  of  the  history  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to 
learn  all  the  minutiee,  I  would  take  them  through  the 
book  and  let  them  gather  what  they  could,  taking 
care  that  it  would  be  the  prominent  facts  fust,  and 
then  as  much  more  as  possible.  But  I  would  not  be 
understood  as  taking  them  through  the  history  as 
through  a  chronological  table,  getting  only  the  dry 
bones,  but  1  would  clothe  these  with  living,  breathing 
flesh  a-  I  went  alonir.  A  certain  amount  of  detail  \s 
necessary  to  illustrate  and  make  an  important  fact 
interesting,  yet  the  detail  should  be  used  to  help  fix 
the  main  fact  in  th<'  mind.  To  make  my  point 
plainer,  suppose  the  Bubject  to  be  the  French  and  In- 
dian war-.  Now,  there  were  numerous  battles  and 
skirmishes  and  treaties,  but  before  I  would  exp<  ct  a 
class  to  remember  them  all  I  would  have  them  read 
10 


146  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

an  interesting  account  of  Bracldock's  defeat  and  the 
fall  of  Quebec,  the  two  most  prominent  events  in  all 
those  wars.  I  would  have  them  know  something  of 
the  character  and  conduct  of  Braddock,  the  discipline 
of  British  soldiers,  the  mode  of  fighting  among  the 
Indians,  the  locality  of  the  battle,  the  career  of  the 
young  Washington,  etc.,  and  in  the  other  case  the 
death  of  Wolfe  and  Montcalm  and  all  the  circum- 
stances connected  with  it,  the  nature  of  the  battle- 
ground, etc.  Two  lessons  might  be  given  which 
would  make  a  more  permanent  impression,  and  two 
dates  learned  which  would  be  longer  remembered 
than  if  a  dozen  lessons  had  been  made  of  this  subject 
and  all  the  dates  and  minor  details  of  these  wars 
committed  to  memory. 

To  make  the  study  interesting,  and  for  variety,  the 
teacher  should  gather  together,  for  the  purpose  of 
using  in  his  class,  a  number  of  the  characteristic  say- 
ings of  historical  characters,  as  "Don't  give  up  the 
ship ; "  "  We  have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours ; " 
"A  little  more  grape,  Capt.  Bragg;"  "We  will  fight 
it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer,"  etc. ;  also 
some  of  the  popular  appellations  of  great  men,  as 
"Rough  and  Ready,"  "Sage  of  Monticello,"  "The 
American  Pathfinder,"  etc.,  and  such  terms  as  "Filli- 
busters,"  "Know  Nothings,"  "Grangers."  He  can 
make  use  of  this  list  in  review  lessons,  and  it  will 
add  much  to  the  interest  of  the  recitation.  By  use 
of  judicious  questions  the  teacher  can,  in  reviewing, 
fix  many  points  of  interest.  Questions  somewhat  as 
follows  should  be  asked  :  Who  was  Roger  Williams  ? 
Pocahontas?     Sir  Walter  Raleigh ?     Balboa?     Major 


IN*    OOUKTBY    schools.  1  1  i 

Andre?  etc  What  men  figured  prominently  in  the 
war  of  1812?  What  battle  was  fought  after  peace 
was  declared  between  the  two  countries?  What  led 
to  the  settlement  of  California?  What  were  the  ac- 
quisitions of  territory  to  the  United  States?  Who 
was  President  during  the  war  of  1812?  During  the 
Mexican  war.'1  Whatwasthe  Missouri  Compromise  ? 
etc.  A  few  Buch  questions  Bhould  be  asked  for  re- 
view every  day. 

Pupils  wlio  are  sufficiently  advanced  and  have  time 
from  other  studies,  should  be  encouraged  to  write 
short  sket  'ii    historical  subjects.     I  would    uot 

impose  it  as  a  duty,  but  request  it  and  encourage  any 
inclination  the  pupil  may  show  in  that  direction. 
They  may  be  encouraged  also  to  relate  incidents 
which  they  may  have  read  in  other  work-. 

There  i<  no  branch  of  Learning  in  which  there  is 
such  eptibility  of  illustratiou  by  the  introduction 
of  collateral  and  explanatory  matter.  If  the  teacher 
be  well  read  he  can  enliven  each  recitation  by  re- 
ig  briefly  some  incident  or  making  some  explana- 
tion not  found  in  the  text-1 kg. 

The  study  of  Geography  should  v;<>  hand  in  hand 
with  Bistory.  Free  use  of  the  map  and  globe  Bhould 
made  to  illustrate  the  lessons.  Pupils  should  be 
encouraged  to  read  fragments  of  Bistory,  Buch  as 
Abb  tt'e   Bisl         ,  some  of  the  more  h  ting  bi- 

of  great  men.  and  many  of  the  historical 
works  written  especially  for  the  young.  The  teacher 
should  point  out  certain  such  works  which  may  be 
accessible  t"  hi-  pupils. 

Attention  Bhould  be  paid  to  the  prog  ind  devel- 


148  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

opment  of  science,  art  and  literature  among  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  in  reviews  scientific  men,  inventors,  artists, 
poets  and  authors  should  be  grouped  according  to 
their  respective  epochs.  The  dates  of  great  inven- 
tions and  discoveries  and  their  effects  on  civilization 
should  be  remembered,  as  well  as  the  rise  and  fall  of 
dynasties  or  the  record  of  battles  and  political  in- 
trigues. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ANATOMY,    PHYSIOLOGY    AND    HYGIENE. 

Anatomy,  teaching  the  structure  of  our  bodies; 
Physiology,  the  functions  of  the  various  organs:  and 
Hygiene,  the  application  of  this  knowledge  to  the 
maintaining  of  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body,  are 
subjects  usually  included  under  the  term  Physiology, 
and  arc  required  by  law,  in  many  of  the  States,  to  be 
taught  in  common  Bchools,  or  rather  the  teacher  is 
required  to  be  prepared  to  teach  them.  It  is  emi- 
nently proper  that  this  subject  should  be  taught  in 
country  schools. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  an  out-door  life  of 
labor  La  more  conducive  to  health  and  longevity  than 
dentary  in-door  life,  country  people  need  the 
knowledge,  which,  it'  properly  applied,  will  conserve 
their  health  and  bodily  vigor.  Farmers  do  not  al- 
ways obey  the  laws  of  health  in  regard  to  diet  and 
exercise,  and  farmers1  children  need  instruction  on 
this  p<»int  as  well  as  in  regard  to  keeping  accounts 
or  any  other  branch  taught  in  schools. 

The  teacher  will  find  that  the  same  methods  of 
teaching  which  arc  applicable  in  Geography,  Gram- 
mar and  History  can  !»<•  successfully  applied  in  thi* 

branch.     The  topic  method  Bhould  prevail,  and  pupils 

(U 


150  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

should  be  encouraged  to  outline  and  classify  the  sub- 
jects treated  in  the  text-book.  A  class  can  be  per- 
haps more  successfully  conducted  if  each  pupil  has  a 
different  author  in  his  hands  than  if  thev  all  had  the 
same.  The  truly  alive  teacher  will  find  no  difficulty 
in  presenting  the  subject  and  conducting  a  recitation, 
but  questions  of  more  importance  are  these  :  "What 
parts  shall  be  studied,  and  where  shall  the  class  com- 
mence? The  subject  is  too  deep  to  be  studied  in  de- 
tail by  pupils  of  a  country  school.  Only  the  more 
important  general  principles  should  be  taught,  and 
these  well  impressed  upon  their  minds.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  points  which  the  teacher  should  se- 
lect and  the  order  in  which  they  should  be  presented  : 

I.     GENERAL    FRAMEWORK    OF    THE    BODY. 

1.   Bones. 

Let  the  class  make  out  an  outline  of  the  bones, 
naming  every  bone  in  the  body  under  the  main  divis- 
ions of  Head,  Trunk  and  Extremities,  then  proceed 
to  learn  the  names  of  a  few  of  the  more  important 
bones  first;  those  of  less  importance  may  be  learned 
incidentally  by  reviews  and  class  drills.  !Next  give 
a  lesson  or  two  on  the  structure  and  use  of  the  bones 
and  their  importance  in  a  hygienic  sense,  as,  for  exam- 
ple, the  importance  of  recognizing  the  fact  that  chil- 
dren's bones  are  softer  and  contain  less  mineral  mat- 
ter, and  the  bones  of  old  persons  are  in  the  opposite 
conditions,  and  make  the  application  as  regards  man- 
aging children  to  prevent  bow  legs,  spinal  deformities, 
etc.,  and  care  to  prevent  accidents  causing  fracture  in 


IN    <  ol.VIKY     S<   1 1  B.  151 

elderly  persons.  Three  or  four  Lessons  will  thus  bring 
out  all  the  more  important  matters  relating  to  the 
boues.  By  frequent  reviews,  after  the  pupil  has  ad- 
vanced toother  subjects,  these  important  tacts  will  be 
fixed  in  their  memories  and  Been  in  their  relations  to 
other  facts  of  the  science.  You  must  proceed  ac- 
cording to  the  intellectual  calibre  of  your  pupils.  If 
they  arc  capable  of  grasping  the  more  abstruse  parts, 
lead  them  gradually  into  them;  if  not,  teach  what 
they  can  comprehend  and  teach  that  well. 

2.  Musch  8. 

Make  outlines  as  with  the  hones,  naming  those 
muscles  usually  given  in  school  text-books,  and 
memorizing  a  lew  of  the  more  important.  The 
teacher  may  give  hints  in  regard  to  the  outline,  sug- 
gesting that  the  structure,  arrangement,  kinds  and 
use  of  mufi      -  form  a  part  of  the  outline.     Several 

lessons  are  then  to  he  made  on  these  points. 

3.  The  Skin. 

A  l''-son  or  two  on  this  suhjeet.dix-usMni;  its  struct- 
and  use,  including  hair  and  nails,  mucous  mem- 
brane and  teeth,  the  three  latter  being  modifications 
of  the  epidermis,  or  outer  skin.  The  functions  of 
the  skin  will  be  better  understood  after  the  subjeci 
of  respiration,  digestion  and  circulation  are  studied. 

The  whole  subject  of  the  framework  of  the  body 
may  now  be  reviewed  by  outline-  and  general  ques- 
tions and  dlSCUSSionS. 


152  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

II.     VITAL    PROCESSES. 

1.    Digestion. 

Make  out  outlines  of  the  organs  of  digestion,  in- 
cluding teeth,  tongue,  salivary  glands,  oesophagus, 
stomach,  intestinal  canal,  pancreas  and  liver.  De- 
scribe these  parts  in  a  general  manner,  and  next  out- 
line and  describe  the  processes  of  digestion,  as  mas- 
tication, iusalivation,  deglutition,  chymification,  chy- 
lification,  with  the  fluids  necessary  to  perform  these 
processes,  as  saliva,  gastric  juice,  bile  and  pancreatic 
fluid.  Tell  what  processes  are  mechanical  and  what 
chemico-vital.  A  number  of  lessons  should  be  made 
of  the  subject  of  digestion,  as  it  is  of  great  import- 
ance. Give  a  lesson  on  the  hygiene  of  digestion  in 
relation  to  manner  and  matter  of  diet. 

2.  Circulation. 

Outline  organs,  as  arteries,  veins,  capillaries,  heart, 
lymphatics,  with  a  discussion  of  the  processes  and  re- 
sults. Drill  particularly  in  tracing  the  course  of  the 
blood  in"  the  round  of  the  circulation.  Draw  diagram 
on  blackboard  to  illustrate. 

3.  Respiration. 

Outline  and  discuss  organs,  as  trachea,  bronchial 
tubes,  lungs,  air  cells,  capillaries,  with  processes  and 
results,  as  elimination  of  impurities  and  production 
of  pure  blood  for  vital  purposes.  Show  the  relation 
between  the  lungs  and  skin  in  the  processes  of  excre- 
tion. Explain  the  philosophy  of  "taking  cold"  and 
the  necessity  of  good  ventilation. 


IN    OOUMTEY    SCHOOLS.  153 

Review  the  whole  Bubject  of  vital  processes  and 
dwell  on  the  hygiene  of  digestion,  as  it  may  now  be 

better  understood  after  a  discussion  of  circulation  and 
respiration.      A  general  review  from  the  beginning 

may  now  be  given,  asking  questions  which  will  make 
pupils  think  and  reason,  and  drill  on  the  more  im- 
portant pans  to  fix  them  in  the  memory. 

IH.     NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 

The  structure,  functions  and  hygiene  of  the  ner- 
vous ByBtern  Bhould  be  studied  by  outlines,  making 
the  grand  divisions  of  cerebro-spinal  and  sympathetic 
systems,  also  bringing  in  the  terms  sensory  and 
motor  nerves.  I  need  not  explain  here  further,  as 
the  teacher  who  has  conducted  a  class  properly  thus 
far  will  understand  how  to  present  this  subject. 

H.     Till:    SPECIAL    SENSES. 

Theeyeandear  Bhould  be  studied  in  considerable 
detail,  paying  {'articular  attention  to  the  hygiene  of 
these  organs.  A  little  knowledge  of  the  sciences  of 
optics  and  acoustics  would  be  of  benefit  to  the  teacher 
Let  him  Study  the--'  subjects  in  some  work  on  natural 
philosophy,  and  he  will  he  better  aide  to  explain  the 
functions  of  these  organs. 

If  the  class  is  capable  of  going  farther  during  one 
term,  there  are  many  other  points  which  may  he  taken 
up  and  discussed,  hut  first  let  a  thorough  investiga- 
tion of  the  points  I  have  noted  he  made.  I  insist  on 
frequent  reviews.     The  teacher,  at  least,  should  have 

more  than  one  text-hook,  and  it  would    he  well  if  t: 


154  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

•class  had  different  authors  also.     There  are  some  very 
good  text-books  on  the  subject  designed  for  common 
schools.     Among   them  may  be  mentioned   Steeles' 
and    Cutter's.      Some   of    the   review    questions    in 
"  Steele's  Fourteen  Weeks  "  are  valuable  aids  to  the 
teacher.     If  his  class  has  not  that  book  he  should  use 
some  of  those  questions  by  writing  them  on  the  board 
for  review  lessons.     The  teacher  should  use  all  possi- 
ble aids  in  illustrating  the  anatomy  of  important  or- 
gans.    It  is  possible  to  procure  specimens  from  ani- 
mals which  will  illustrate  many  points  in  the  human 
system.     The  eye  of  a  hog  is  about  the  same  in  size 
and  structure  as  the  human  eye,  and  specimens  should 
be  procured  and  dissected  before  the  class.     If  one  is 
boiled  it  will  bear  dissection  better,  but  it  should  be 
shown  also  in  a  natural  state.     The  larynx  of  a  hog 
will  also  illustrate  the  human  larynx,  and  give  a  much 
clearer  idea  than  pictures  or  models.     In  fact  nearly 
all  the  internal  organs  of  the  hog  are  similar  in  size 
and  appearance  to  those  of  the  human  being.     The 
heart,  lungs  and  stomach,  even,  of  a  hog  may  be  ex- 
hibited to  illustrate  these  parts  in  the  human  body. 
Bones  of  animals  may  be  procured  and  sawn  across 
to  show  the  structure.     Five  cents  worth  of  sulphuric 
acid,  to  be  had  at  any  drug  store,  will,  if  diluted,  dis- 
solve the  earthy  parts  of  bone,  leaving  the  animal 
parts  intact.     A  bone  may  be  burned  in  the  stove, 
destroying  the  animal  part  and  leaving  the  earthy 
part. 


CHAPTER  YIII. 

ALGEBRA    AND    THE    HKIIIER   MATHEMATICS. 

The  science  of  Algebra  is  taught  regularly  in  many 
of  our  country  schools,  and  some  portions  of  the 
ber  Mathematics,  as  Geometry,  Trigonometry, 
Astronomy,  etc.,  should  be  taught  incidentally  in 
connection  with  other  branches  and  occasionally  by 
regular  lessons,  although  without  using  a  regular 
text-book. 

Algebra  is  a  method  of  solving  mathematical  prob- 
lems and  representing  quantities  by  means  of  sym- 
bols. It  is  an  indispensable  aid  in  all  the  higher 
mathematical  branches.  It  is  sometimes  called  Gen- 
eral Arithmetic,  and  as  an  aid  to  Arithmetic  it  is  of 
gr^at  value.  It  should  In- studied  before  Arithmetic 
is  finished.  It  frequently  happens  that  the  teacher 
finds  an  example  in  Arithmetic  which  will  at  first 
puzzle  him,  and  very  often  a  knowledge  of  Algebra 
will  help  him  out  of  the  difficulty.  Be  may  Bolve 
the  example  by  Algebra,  and  from  this  get  an  arith- 
metical solution.  As  merely  an  aid  to  the  teacher, 
even  if  he  i-  never  required  to  teach  it,  it  i-  valuable. 

It  will  appear  evident  that  Algebra  Bhould  be  taught 
very  mnch  the  Bame  ae  Arithmetic  I  will  therefore 
only  offer  a  fev»  >ns: 


156  METHODS    OF   TEACHING. 

There  are  a  certain  number  of  definitions  which 
must  be  learned  before  much  progress  can  be  made, 
but  I  would  not  advise  a  study  of  them  alone.  The 
teacher  should  first  develop  the  algebraic  idea  of  rep- 
resenting quantities  by  symbols.  Take,  for  example,, 
the  sum  of  24  and  32.  Instead  of  adding  the  num- 
bers, as  in  Arithmetic,  you  will  say,  "  we  will  repre- 
sent the  number  24  by  a,  and  the  number  32  by  b? 
and  the  operation  will  then  stand  a-\-b."  Some  of 
the  simple  examples  in.  Arithmetic  should  be  pre- 
sented and  solved  algebraically.  For  instance,  such 
problems  as  the  following : 

"  A  travels  a  certain  distance  one  day  and  twice  as 
far  the  next.  In  the  two  days  he  travels  36  miles; 
how  far  does  he  travel  each  day  ?  " 

A  number  of  such  examples  should  be  solved  by 
the  pupils  before  definitions  should  be  learned.  A 
few  definitions  only  are  necessary  at  first ;  the  others 
to  be  learned  as  the  necessity  arises  for  their  use. 

Numerous  examples,  like  the  following,  may  be- 
given  while  the  pupil  is  learning  the  necessary  defin- 
itions : 

"  What  is  the  value  of  c-\-d — b,  c  being  equal  to  5, 
.-/  to  10  and  b  to  3  ? " 

As  soon  as  the  pupil  is  somewhat  familiar  with  al- 
gebraic forms  of  expression,  the  operations  of  addi- 
tion, subtraction,  multiplication  and  division  of  alge- 
braic quantities  should  be  taught,  giving  numerous 


IN    00U2TTBY    SCHOOLS.  107 

examples  for  practice,  and  requiring  pupils  to  be  par- 
ticular in  the  use  of  Bigns. 

Be  Bare  that  all  pupils  have  the  proper  conception 
of  adding  and  subtracting  algebraic  quantities  and 
of  the  idea  that  Letters  may  represent  any  quantity. 
With  these  facts  well  impressed  and  clearly  under- 
b1  '<>d.  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  conducting  a  class 
illy  through  any  text-book  on  the  science,  if 
the  teacher  has  profited  by  the  hints  on  teaching 
Arithmetic. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  some  of  the  applications 
of  the  higher  mathematics  in  the  chapter  on  Arith- 
metic. With  advanced  pupils  in  Algebra  or  Arith- 
metic a  Blight  knowledge  of  Geometry   and   Trigo- 

metry  may  be  taught  it*  the  teacher  has  prepared 
himself  by  the  study  of  these  branches.  For  exam- 
ple, even  very  young  pupils  can  be  taught  the  mean- 
ing ot"  many  geometrical  terms,  as  angle,  plane,  the 
different  kinds  of  triangles,  perpendicular,  diagonal, 
parallel  line-,  parts  of  a  circle,  chords,  polygon-. 
prisms,  etc.,  and  advanced  pupils  in  country  schools 
should  certainly  be  made  familiar  with  these  terms. 
8  ime  of  tie'  simpler  propositions  may  be  demon- 
strated, or  at  least  taught  as  facts.  The  blocks  before 
spoken  of  see  p.  50),  and  which  should  be  in  every 
il-room,  will  aid  in  familiarizing  pupils  with 
_  onietrieal  terms.  The  pn><-.--  <.f  finding  di.-tam  ■ 
by  similar  triangles  and  Bonie  other  parts  of  Trigo- 
nometry may  be  taught.  School  boys  are  sometimes 
curious  to  know  how  astronomers  can  tell  the  distance 
of  the  -mi  from  the  earth.  This  may  be  made  plain 
to  them    by  a   Bimple  calculation.     Fur  a  solution  of 


158  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

this  problem,  see  April  number,  1879,  of  Normal 
Teacher.  Many  of  the  facts  of  mathematical  Geog- 
raphy may  also  be  made  plainer  by  a  knowledge  of 
geometrical  forms  and  principles, 

I  will  close  this  chapter  by  saying,  do  not  be  bound 
within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  text-book  your  class 
is  using,  but  wherever  you  can  fix  a  fact  or  draw  out 
a  demonstration  in  any  useful  line  of  investigation 
do  so,  but  do  not  waste  time  in  try ing  to  demonstrate 
what  your  pupils  are  not  old  enough,  or  have  not  the 
intellectual  power  to  understand;  and  above  all 
things  do  not  try  to  demonstrate  anything  you  do  not 
yourself  understand.  If  you  are  asked  a  question,  or 
to  explain  something  of  which  you  are  ignorant,  do 
not  pretend  to  know  or  put  them  off  with  an  excuse, 
but  frankly  acknowledge  your  ignorance;  then  study 
on  that  point  until  you  have  mastered  it,  if  it  be  pos- 
sible. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE    NATURAL    SCIENCES. 

Under  this  head  I  wish  to  discuss  the  teaching  of 
Botany,  Geology,  Natural  Philosophy,  Chemistry  and 
logy  in  country  schools.  I  think  T  hear  some  one 
savin  ir.  ""What!  do  you  propose  that  all  these  branches 
be  taught  in  onr  common  country  schools?"  I  an- 
swcr  such  a  person  by  saying,  "Yes;  not  regularly, 
not  necessarily  with  text-books,  but  incidentally  and 
occasionally  as  a  means  of  culture  and  for  the  pur- 
■  of  keeping  up  interest,  enthusiasm,  assisting  in 
governing,  and  with  the  hope  that  some  good  seeds 
may  be  bowu  which  will  find  proper  soil  and  receive 
a  start  which  may  culminate  in  a  future  Aja-siz  or 
Linnaeus."  "But  teachers  are  not  generally  prepared 
to  teach  such  subjects.  They  have  no  knowledge  oi 
them  themselves."  Tien  they  should  go  to  work  and 
inform  themselvi 

children  will  often  take  a  deep  interesl  in  eoll<  - 
ing  specimens  and  exhil.it  a  Btrong  desire  to  know 
something  about  them.  There  is  much  difference  in 
ghborhoods  in  thi<  res] t.  There  are  Bome  back- 
woods communities  where  anything  of  the  kind 
would  1"'  looked  upon  as  the  atmosl  degree  of  fool- 
ishness, and   the   people   would    be    ready  to    call    the 

1 


160  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

teacher  who  would  attempt  anything  of  the  kind  a 
lunatic.  The  teacher,  then,  must  first  feel  the  public 
pulse,  and  beware  how  he  carries  innovations  into  the 
school-room.  Wherever  anything  of  the  kind  is  en- 
tirely new  the  teacher  must  proceed  with  caution,  and 
make  gradual  advances  until  he  captures  the  fort. 

1.  Let  us  see  what  the  teacher  may  do  in  the  line 
of  botanical  teaching.  If  it  is  in  the  spring,  summer 
or  fall,  he  may  procure  a  few  leaves  of  different 
kinds,  and  either  at  general  exercise,  or  during  the 
five  minutes  intervals  of  rest,  call  the  attention  of 
the  school  to  them.  Show  them  that  in  one  sense 
they  are  all  alike,  and  in  another  all  different;  that 
is,  they  all  have  a  midrib  and  branching  veins.  You 
may  draw  this  fact  out  by  asking  questions.  You 
may  ask  them  in  what  respect  they  are  all  alike. 
They  will  probably  say  they  are  all  green.  Then  you 
may  ask  them  if  any  of  them  ever  saw  a  leaf  that 
was  not  green.  They  will  probably  answer,  no.  You 
may  tell  them  that  nearly  all  leaves  are  green,  but 
there  are  some  leaves  that  are  colored,  or  partly  so. 
Tell  them  to  ask  their  parents  if  they  ever  saw  a  leaf 
that  was  not  green  when  young  and  growing.  You 
may  call  for  a  report  the  next  day.  Ask  them  in 
what  respect  the  leaves  are  different.  They  will  an- 
swer at  once  that  they  are  of  different  shapes.  You 
may  now  close  the  exercise  for  this  time  by  telling 
them  that  to-morrow  you  want  to  see  how  many 
different  shaped  leaves  each  one  can  bring.  You  may 
make  a  collection  of  leaves.  Dry  them  by  laying 
between  folds  of  paper.  If  pupils  take  an  interest 
in  making  a  collection  (which  I  am  sure  they  will, 


IN    col   NTKY     SCHOOLS.  101 

many  of  them  at  least),  you  may  give  a  number  of 

lessons  on  the  leaf,  classifying  them  according  to  their 
shape.  An  outline  may  be  written  on  the  black- 
board, and  though  it  will  bring  in  some  new  words 
with  which  the  pupils  arc  not  familiar,  the  words  are 
not  difficult  of  comprehension  when  explained  ;  be- 
sides you  need  not  use  the  technical  term  when  a 
common  word  will  answer.  The  words  of  the  out- 
line can  be  used  as  a  spelling  lesson  for  the  next  day. 
I  give  below  a  Bpecimen  of  an  outline  which  maybe 
made  out  on  the  subject  of  leaves. 

Leaves. 

1.  Parte. 

1.   Blade. 

1.  Midrib. 

2,  Veins. 

'_'.    Foot  -talk  or  leaf  stalk. 

2.  Form-. 

1.    As  to  general  outline. 

1.  Linear. 

2.  Lane-shaped. 

3.  Oblong. 

4.  Elliptical. 

5.  Oval. 

6.  Ovale. 

7.  <  >rl>i<'iil:ir  <>r  rotund. 

8.  <  folanceol  it. . 
'.i.    Wedge-shaped. 

1".   8] n-shap 

11.   0         'to. 

11 


162  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 


2.  As  to  base. 

1.  Heart-shaped. 

2.  Kidney-shaped. 

3.  Eared. 

4.  Arrow-shaped. 

5.  Halberd-shaped. 

6.  Shield-shaped. 

3.  As  to  Apex. 

1.  Pointed. 

2.  Acute. 

3.  Obtuse. 

4.  Truncate. 

5.  Eetuse. 

6.  Notched. 

7.  Obcordate. 

8.  Tooth-shaped. 

9.  Mucronate. 
10.    Bristle-pointed. 

4.  As  to  particular  outline. 

1.  Entire. 

2.  Saw-toothed. 

3.  Toothed. 

4.  Scalloped. 

5.  Wavy. 

6.  Sinuate. 

7.  Cut  or  jagged. 

8.  Lobed. 

9.  Cleft. 

10.  Parted. 

11.  Divided. 

12.  Simple. 

13.  Compound. 

1.  Pinnate. 

2.  Palmate. 


A  couple  of  weeks  may  be  profitably  and  pleasantly 
spent  studying  the  subject  of  leaves  in  this  way,  us- 
ing no  more  than  five  minutes  each  day.  It  will  be 
easy  enough  to  collect  specimens  to  represent  nearly 


FX    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  163 

nil  tlu-  above  forma  of  leaves,  and  as  the  pupils  do 

this  work  at  noons  and  r<  JSes  and  mornings  and 
evenings,  but  little  time  is  consumed,  much  interest 
can  be  awakened,  some  knowledge  imparted,  and, 
without  a  doubt,  some  dormant  mind  will  be  aroused 
and  tli.'  perceptive  faculties  cultivated. 

IY  in  winter,  a  collection  of  the  different  kinds  of 
wood  may  be  mad.'  by  the  pupils.  This  may  be  made 
very  interesting.  The  teacher  should  specify  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  blocks.  They  should  be  cut  so  as 
to  show  the  grain  of  the  wood,  both  longitudinal  and 
transverse,  with  one  side  and  one  end  planed  or 
polished.  They  should  then  be  correctly  and  plainly 
labelled  and  kept  as  a  part  of  the  property  of  the 
school.  Those  kinds  which  are  native  of  the  country 
should  be  so  designated,  and  those  which  are  foreign. 
In  this  w;iy  a  complete  collection  of  all  the  native 

woods  of  the  locality  and  many  of  foreign  BpecieS 
may  be  made,  and  will  be  a  collection  of  value  when 
implete.  The  teacher  may  give  some  very  interest- 
ing lectures  on  the  uses,  strength,  ere.,  of  woods. 
The  pupils  may  be  asked  to  name  some  of  the  ne 

of  wood,  what  kind-  of  wood  are  valuable  tor  certain 

purposes,  etc.     Tie-  teacher  may  procure  specimens 
_rn  woods,    ;.-    Lignumvitse,   logwood,  ebony, 

.    and    -peak    of  their   uses    in    tie-    art-    and    their 

value  in  a  commercial  sense. 

There  is   not  a  locality  in   the  United   States  where 
such  exercises  a-  the  above  can  not  be  mad.'  practical, 
a  statement  which  <  an  not  be  made  in  regard  to  G 
logical  teaching.    Tic  live  teacher  may    find   other 
practical  and  ]  touching  the  scien 


164  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

of  Botany,  but  these,  it  is  hoped,  are   sufficient  as 
hints. 

2.  In  many  localities  Geology  may  be  made  a  prof- 
itable study,  and  a  collection  of  specimens  of  fossils 
and  minerals  be  made.  There  are  localities  where 
fossils  are  numerous,  and  there  are  but  few  places 
where  there  are  not  different  kinds  of  rocks.  Let  a  ool- 
lection  be  commenced  and  extended  as  far  as  possible, 
even  if  the  locality  is  poor  in  specimens.  The  teacher 
should  endeavor  to  inform  himself  on  the  subject  of 
Geology,  that  he  may  be  able  to  answer  the  numerous 
queries  which  may  be  put  to  him  in  regard  to  rocks, 
minerals  and  fossils.  Interesting  short  lectures  may 
be  given  upon  rocks,  ores,  fossils,  etc.  Let  the 
teacher  prepare  himself  by  reading  and  stud}7  for  a 
short  talk  about  some  of  these  subjects.  I  have  not 
space  to  suggest  what  he  may  sa}r,  but  can  only,  in  a 
general  way,  hint  that  he  endeavor  to  make  these 
talks  interesting"  by  talking  about  what  the  pupils 
seem  to  take  an  interest  in.  The  grand  object  is  to 
make  up  mind.  When  a  thirst  for  knowledge  is  once 
induced  it  is  easy  to  supply  the  demand.  By  a  few 
judicious  questions  and  statements,  the  teacher  will 
find  out  what  he  can  talk  about  with  the  greatest  de- 
gree of  success.  The  teacher  should,  if  possible,  pro- 
cure specimens  of  the  different  kinds  of  coal,  of  iron, 
lead,  zinc  and  copper  ores,  of  gold  and  silver-bearing 
quartz,  of  granite,  marble,  sand-stone,  chalk,  slate, 
etc.  In  localities  where  there  are  no  such  things, 
they  will  be  a  source  of  interest  to  the  whole  school 
and  to  Geography  classes  in  particular.  A  Geologi- 
cal collection  of  such  representative  specimens  should 


IN    COUNTRY    schools.  165 

form  a  part  of  the  teacher's  stork  in  trade.  Tic  may 
procure  them  id  his  travels  and  through  the  medium 
of  friends  and  by  exchange  with  others  interested  in 
the  same  subjects. 

■\.  Some  very  interesting  experiments  in  Natural 
Philosophy  and  Chemistry  may  be  performed  by  the 
teacher,  and  the  principles  made  plain  to  pupils.  In 
searching  a  work  on  these  subjects  von  will  find  many 
experiments  described  which,  with  a  little  modifica- 
tion, you  may  perform  with  little  or  no  cost  for  appa- 
ratus or  material.  Much  of  the  apparatus  for  per- 
forming experiments  in  Natural  Philosophy  and 
Chemistry  may  be  dev.ised  by  any  teacher  who  has 
ordinary  ingenuity.  These  subjects  will  not,  perhaps, 
be  bo  well  adapted  to  the  whole  school  as  Botany  and 
<;.  ology,but  with  classes  in  Physiology  and  advanced 
<  h  ography,  many  experiments  may  be  performed  and 
principles  illustrated  which  will  prove  of  great  use  in 
widening  their  field  of  knowledge  and  stimulating 
them  to  independent  investigation  and  research,  t 
remember,  when  quite  a  small  hoy,  I  read  "  Parker's 
Philosophy"  and  performed  Beveral  of  the  experi- 
ments there  described  without  ever  consulting  any 
one,  I  found  a  crooked  stem  of  a  poke-weed,  and 
pushing  out  the  pith,  made  a  Byphon,  and  gol  a  Bcold- 
ing  for  running  the  water  out  of  my  mother's  rain- 
water barrel.  Boys  frequently  exhibit  such  tenden- 
cies at  a  very  early  age.  A  horse-shoe  magnet  may 
be  purchased  for  a  few  cents,  and  many  wonderful 
experiments  performed  with  it,  illustrating  the  prop- 
erties of  that  mysterious  agent,  electricity.  It'  some 
common  bituminous  coal  be  reduced  to  a  powder  and 


166  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

heated  in  the  bowl  of  a  clay  tobacco  pipe,  by  cover- 
ing with  moistened  clay,  the  gas  which  is  developed 
may  be  burned  at  the  end  of  the  pipe  stem.  It  is  the 
common  illuminating  gas  which  lights  our  cities.  If 
a  little  lump  of  green  vitriol  be  dropped  into  a  glass  of 
clear  water  it  will  dissolve,  and  the  solution  will  be 
clear.  Now,  if  a  solution  of  tannic  acid  be  made, 
cither  by  dropping  a  very  small  quantity  into  another 
glass  of  water,  or  a  few  drops  of  tea  from  oak  bark 
be  added  to  the  water,  and  the  contents  of  one  glass 
be  mixed  with  the  contents  of  the  other,  the  two  pre- 
viously clear  solutions  will  turn  instantly  black  as  ink. 
Here  is  an  illustration  of  a  chemical  change.  I  will 
give  another  just  as  simple.  Drop  a  small  particle 
of  starch  in  a  glass  of  hot  water.  Into  another  glass 
put  a  drop  of  tincture  of  iodine.  The  clear  liquids, 
when  mixed,  will  assume  a  beautiful  blue  color. 
Here  is  one  of  a  different  character  :  Mix  a  teaspoon - 
ful  of  chlorate  of  potash  with  a  similar  quantity  of 
sugar;  lay  on  a  board  and  let  fall  a  single  drop  of 
sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  upon  it.  The  mass  will 
take  lire  and  burn  with  a  beautiful  white  flame  and 
with  great  rapidity.  A  volcano  may  be  illustrated 
with  this  material.  Raise  a  pile  of  earth  on  a  wide 
board,  and  in  the  center  place  a  little  of  this  mate- 
rial wrapped  in  paper,  arranging  a  paper  tube  so  as 
to  reach  the  apex  of  the  volcano  and  communicate 
with  the  material  inside.  Let  fall  a  drop  of  the  acid 
through  this  tube,  and  instantly  the  volcano  will 
have  an  eruption,  belching  forth  fire  and  smoke. 
Although  the  teacher  may  not  be  able  to  explain  the 
exact  nature  of  these  chemical  changes,  the  purpose 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  1G7 

if  served  as  well.  It  is  only  necessary  to  show  that 
a  new  ami  different  Bnbstance  ie  produced  by  a  chem- 
ical reaction.    The  pupil  may  be  referred  to  the  pro- 

-  of  making  soap  from  fats  and  alkalies  as  an  illus- 
tration of  a  chemical  change  producing  a  new  suh- 
Btance. 

I  have  had  tor  a  number  of  years  in  contemplation 
a  Mnall  book  of  easy  experiments  in  chemistry  and 
philosophy,  and  part  of  the  manuscript  is  already 
prepared.  It  would  contain  a  vast  number  of  sim- 
ple   and    easy    experiments    illustrating     important 

Qts.     I  have  placed   it  in  the   hands  of  other  par- 

.  and  no  doubt  it  will  be  finished  and  issued  from 
the  press  at  no  distant  day.  Such  a  work  will,  I 
have  no  doubt,  be  of  immense  value  to  the  teacher, 
both  as  an  aid  to  the  study  of  these  sciences,  and  as 
a  valuable  help  in  the  Bchool-room. 

4.  A  few  words  in  regard  to  the  teaching  of  Natu- 
ral  History  in   the  country  school.     Here  is  a  wide 

i  for  youth  to  investigate,  but  the  country  teacher 
will  not  find  it  so  available  as  the  foregoing  sciences. 
Specimens  can  not  be  collected  unless  it  be  in  the  de- 
partment of  insects.  If  any  teacher's  taste  incline  in 
that  direction  perhaps  he  may  make  this  branch  a 
profitable  one.  Children  love  to  hearand  read  about 
animals.  Stories  of  animal  sagacity  may  be  related, 
and  questions  asked  about  the  animals  of  different 
countries,  their  habits,  u&  Pupils  may  be  told, 

for  example,  of  the  reindeer,  an  animal  which  fur- 
nish d.  drink,  clothing,  Bbelter  and  implements 
for  a  certain  class  of  people;  of  Borne  of  the  articles 
oi'  commerce  which  are  produced  from  animal.-,  as 


168  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

ivory,  bone,  whalebone,  oil,  leather,  horn,  glue,  furs, 
wool,  feathers,  etc. ;  of  the  animals  peculiar  to  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world,  etc.  Some  of  these  points 
belong  to  Geography,  but  may  be  taught  to  the  whole 
school  as  general  exercises. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MORALS    AND    MANNERS. 

A  grave  responsibility  rests  upon  the  teacher.  lie 
should  do  vastly  more  than  the  law  requires  of  him  or 
his  employers  expect  of  him.  Instructing  children 
in  the  branches  treated  of  in  text-hooks  is  not  the 
only  teaching  a  teacher  should  do.  There  is  some- 
thing higher  and  nobler  for  him  to  do.  lie  must 
teach  Lessons  in  morals  and  manners,  the  substratum 
«>n  which  a  free  government  rests.  Let  me  here  make 
an  extract  from  Trot'.  Huxley's  address  before  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University: 

••si/.,'  is  not  grandeur,  and  territory  does  nol  make 
a  nation.  The  great  issue  about  which  hangs  a  true 
sublimity,  and  the  terror  of  overhanging  fate  is,  what 
are  you  going  to  with  all  these  things?  What  is  to 
be  the  end  to  which  these  arc  to  be  the  means  ''.      Yoii 

are  making  a  novel  experiment  in  politics  <>n  the 
greatest  scale  which  the  world  has  yet  seen.  Forty 
millions  at  your  first  centenary!  It  is  reasonably  to 
lie  expected  that  at  the  Becond,  these  States  will  be 
occupied  by  two  hundred  millions  "t'  English  speak- 
ing people  spread  over  an  area  ;i>  large  a-  that  of 
Europe,  and  with  climates  mid  interests  as  diver-e  as 
those  of  Spain  and  Scandinavia,  England  ami  Russia. 

(II 


170  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

You  and  your  descendants  have  to  ascertain  whether 
this  great  mass  will  hold  together  under  the  forms  of 
.a  republic  and  the  despotic  reality  of  universal  suf- 
frage; whether  State  rights  will  hold  out  against  cen- 
tralization without  separation  ;  whether  centralization 
will  get  the  better  without  actual  or  disguised  mon- 
archy; whether  shifting  corruption  is  better  than  a 
permanent  bureaucracy;  and  as  population  thickens 
in  your  cities  and  the  pressure  of  want  is  felt,  the 
gaunt  spectre  of  pauperism  will  stalk  among  you  and 
■communism  and  socialism  will  claim  to  be  heard. 
Truly  America  has  a  great  future  before  her;  great 
in  toil,  in  care  and  in  responsibility ;  great  in  true 
glory,  if  she  be  guided  in  wisdom  and  righteousness ; 
great  in  shame,  if  she  fail.  I  can  not  understand  why 
other  nations  should  envy  you,  or  be  blind  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  for  the  highest  interest  of  mankind  that  you 
should  succeed;  but  the  one  condition  of  success,  your  sole 
safeguard,  is  the  moral  worth  and  intellectual  clearness  of 
the  individual  citizen.  Education  can  not  give  these,  but 
it  may  cherish  them  and  bring  them  to  the  front  in 
whatever  station  of  society  they  are  to  be  found,  and 
the  universities  ought  to  be  and  may  be  the  fortresses 
of  the  higher  life  of  the  nation." 

I  would  agree  with  Huxle}-  in  all  but  the  last  sen- 
tence. Education  can  give  moral  worth  and  intellect- 
ual clearness,  and  the  common  schools,  and  especially 
the  country  district  schools,  "ought  to  be  and  may  be 
the  fortresses  of  the  higher  life  of  the  nation."  How 
many  of  our  great  men  were  educated  in  our  country 
schools?  Many  received  their  first  impulses  in  some 
log  school-house  in  the  back-woods.     The   country 


IN    coi.viky    SCHOOLS.  171 

school  teacher  has  given  an  impetus  to  the  intellect- 
ual development  of  many  a  statesman  and  man  of 
worth  to  the  nation.  lie  has  made  many  a  man  capa- 
ble of  casting  an  intelligent  ballot,  and  has  he  not  in- 
creased tie'  moral  worth  of  many  a  citizen  of  this 
great  republic?  Much  more  can  he  do  if  guided  by 
right  motives  and  prompted  to  greater  zeal  by  a  true 
understanding  of  the  responsibility  of  his  position 
and  a  real  love  for  the  profession.  Hear  what  one 
of  our  greatesl  statesmen,  Daniel  Webster,  said  about 
the  common  school:  "Many  moral  talcs  and  in- 
structive and  well  contrived  fables,  always  so  alluring 
to  children,  learned  by  heart  in  these  schools,  are  still 
perfectly  preserved  in  my  memory.  *  *  *  In  my 
opinion,  the  instruction  communicated  in  the  t'voc 
schools  of  New  England  has  a  direct  effect  for  srood 
on  the  morals  of  youth.  It  represses  vicious  inclina- 
tions, it  inspires  love  of  character  and  it  awakens 
honorable  aspirations." 

The  teacher  should  endeavor  by  every  means  in  Ins 
power  to  instill  into  his  pupils  habits  which  will 
make  them  good  citizens  of  a  free  republic.  The  fol- 
lowing outline  will  indicate  the  order  in  which  I  pro- 
!  a  very  brief  notice  <>\  some  of  the  points  which 
teachers  Bhould  take  pains  to  teach,  both  by  precept 
and  example : 


172  METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

1.  Morals. 

1.  Veracity. 

1.  Avoid  Lying. 

2.  Avoid  Deception. 

2.  Honesty. 

1.  Avoid  Theft. 

2.  Avoid  Cheating. 

3.  Industry. 

1.  At  Study. 

2.  At  Work. 

4.  Economy. 

1.  Save  Property. 

2.  Save  Time. 

5.  Promptness  and  Regularity. 

1.  Regular  in  Attendance. 

2.  Prompt  at  Recitations. 

3.  Prompt  in  the  Affairs  of  Life. 

2.  Manners. 

1 .  Politeness. 

1.  To  Strangers. 

2.  To  Teacher. 

3.  To  Companions. 

2.  Respect. 

1.  For  Self. 

2.  For  Rights,  Property  and  Persons  of  Others, 

3.  Kindness. 

1.  To  Human  Beings. 

2.  To  Animals. 

4.  Generosity. 

1.  In  Yielding  Rights  and  Privileges. 

2.  In  Giving  and  Sharing  Property. 

5.  Reverence. 

1.  For  God. 

2.  For  Parents. 

3.  For  Teachers. 

4.  For  Age. 

6.  Purity  of  Speech. 

1.  Avoid  Swearing. 

2.  Avoid  Impure  Language. 


IN    ( -ni  n  l  i:v    B<  HOOL8.  173 

I.     .MORALS. 

1  i  '/'/.—I  li'fil  not  enlarge  on  the  necessity 
ot  inculcating  in  the  young  a  sincere  love  of  truth. 
Whenever  possible  tin-  teacher  should  point  out  the 
evil  effects  of  lying  and  deception  in  a  community. 
Gossiping  ami  talc-hearing  are  very  nearly  akin  to 
lying.  Children  should  he  taught  this,  ami  discour- 
aged  in  any  tendency  exhibited  in  this  direction. 
B  ■■■■  t  1 . 1 1 1 lt   lias  happened   on   the   play-ground,   and 

me  one  conies  and  tells  the  teacher.  Here  is  an 
opportunity  to  speak  about  this  matter.  Children 
should  be  taught  that  when  they  are  called  upon  indi- 
vidually for  evidence  in  regard  to  offenses  committed 
theyshould  respond  with  the  ••truth,  the  whole  truth, 
and  nothing  but  the  truth,'*  but  that  a  spirit  of  tattling 
and  meddling  should  always  be  avoided.  They 
should  be  taught  that  a  person  can  act  a  lie  as  well 
as  speak  it.  and  that  all  double  dealing  and  decep- 
tion should  he  abhorred.  The  teacher  can  teach  much 
more  by  example.  He  should  always  be  just  what 
he  appears  to  be,  and  make  no  promises  which  he 
docs  not  intend  to  perform.  Many  teachers  teach 
de  >u  by  not  performing  what  they  promise.     If 

it  happens  that  he  has  made  a  promise  he  is  unable 
t"  perform  he  should  be  quick  to  state  his  reasons, 
and  frankly  acknowledge  an  error  if  he  commits 
one. 

'2.  II  ■'</. — T  fear  that  in  this  free  republic  few 
men  and  women  are  Btrictly  honest.  1  do  not  mean 
that  they  all  Bteal,  but  humbugging  and  cheating  are 
such  common   things  that   few  are  entirely   innocent. 


174  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

I  have,  however,  taught  schools  where  it  was  not  safe 
to  leave  a  pencil  or  knife  on  the  table  and  leave  the 
room,  but  it  was  because  there  was  one  thief  in  the 
school;  I  could  not  accuse  the  school  of  being  dishon- 
est. But  children  need  cautioning  about  taking:  little 
things  which  they  might  not  regard  as  stealing.  They 
should  be  shown  how  taking  an  apple  may  lead  to 
taking  a  knife,  and  this  to  something  of  more  value, 
and  so  on  until  they  land  in  the  penitentiary.  I  would 
not,  however,  speak  very  often  about  stealing,  cer- 
tainly not  at  all  unless  something  occurred  to  give 
occasion  to  speak  about  it,  for  it  is  never  good  to  an- 
ticipate the  commission  of  a  crime  by  making  men- 
tion of  it.  I  say  anticipate  it,  for  I  believe  that  often 
the  mere  calling  of  a  crime  to  mind  will  prompt  its 
commission.  I  have  not  space  here  to  discuss  this 
fact,  but  it  is  a  fact  in  human  nature.  Cheating  is 
sometimes  practiced  in  games  of  childhood.  The 
teacher  should  take  pains  to  check  the  tendency  at 
once,  for  a  child  who  will  cheat  in  a  game  is  likely  to 
cheat  in  business  when  a  man.  Honesty  should  be 
taught,  not  simply  because  it  is  the  best  policy,  but 
because  it  is  one  of  the  noblest  traits  of  human 
character. 

3.  Industry. — I  have  classed  industry  as  a  moral 
trait,  for  no  man  can  be  a  moral  man  and  at  the  same 
time  an  idler.  It  lies  at  the  foundation  of  individual 
and  national  life,  co-ordinate  with  ho.nesty  and  veraci- 
ty. Habits  of  industry  must  be  taught  in  school  as 
well  as  in  the  family.  The  teacher  can  do  much  towards 
fostering  this  trait  by  furnishing  all  with  employment 
in  the  school-room  and  by  occasionally  prompting  the 


IX    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  ]  7") 

idle-inclined  pupils.  This  prompting  must  not  bo 
done  in  a  Bcolding  manner,  but  pleasantly,  by  direct- 
ing them  towards  an  example  to  be  solved,  a  point  to 
be  noticed  in  the  lesson,  a  paragraph  to  be  road  over, 
a  written  exercise  to  be  attended  to,  etc.  Occasion 
should  be  taken  to  point  out  the  benefits  of  industry 
in  the  world.  Tn  geography  classes,  when  lessons  are 
had  on  the  productions  of  various  countries,  call  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  the  wealth  and  beauty  of  a 
country  depend  on  the  industry  of  its  inhabitants;  the 
fine  cities,  buildings,  work-  of  art,  etc.,  are  the  results 
of  industry.  In  general  exercises  in  natural  science, 
the  uses  of  certain  articles,  as  iron,  wood,  etc.,  should 
be  shown  to  be  the  result  of  the  industry  of  man. 
Show  that  these  substances  in  :i  state  of  nature  would 
of  little  or  no  use  to  man.  Call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  farmers  who  are  the  most  wealthy  are 
generally  so  from  industry  ami  economy.  These  two 
traits  can  not,  indeed,  be  separated. 

4.  E  ■  my.— I  come,  naturally,  to  speak  or  this 
also  as  a  moral  trait.  From  the  days  when  the  Prod- 
igal  Son  wasted  his  substance  in  riotous  living,  and 
was  at  last  obliged  to  return  to  an  economical  parent. 
for  support,  to  the  present  day,  those  individuals  who 
have  practiced  economy  have  stood  foremost  in  the 
world's  history  as  the  wise  ones  who  provide  for  the 
future  by  taking  care  of  the  present,  and  to  whom  the 
prodigal  and  wasteful  must  come  at  last  begging.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  financial  depression  which  this 
country  has  just  passed  through  will  teach  lest 
of  economy  that  will  benefit  the  adults  of  the  t 
generation   at  least.      But    the  youth  of    our  BChools 


176  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

should  receive  instruction  in  this  branch,  that  they 
may  not  have  to  learn  by  dear  experience  in  the  future 
what  many  of  us  are  learning  to-day.  About  every 
fifteen  years  there  is  a  financial  crash  in  this  country, 
and  it  is  caused  solely  by  the  extravagance  and  waste- 
fulness of  the  inhabitants. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  economy  in  the  use  of  prop- 
erty and  in  the  use  of  time.  When  books  are  heed- 
lessly torn  or  soiled,  or  school  property  destroyed  the 
teacher  will  have  occasion  to  preach  a  lesson  of  econ- 
omy in  the  use  of  property.  A  programme  of  study 
and  recitation  economizes  time,  and  the  pupils  should 
be  made  to  see  this  and  be  prompted  to  systemize  their 
study  that  they  may  save  time.  Habits  of  economy 
thus  impressed  in  youth  will  often  have  great  effect 
on  character  in  after  life.  Pupils  trained  to  study  by 
plan,  will  be  apt  to  work  and  study  by  system  when 
they  enter  the  active  arena  of  life. 

5.  Promptness  and  Regularity. — Another  moral  trait 
which  should  be  instilled  into  youth  at  an  early  age. 
Regular  attendance  at  school  should  be  shown  as 
highly  necessary  to  secure  the  benefits  of  school. 
The  teacher  should  talk  to  parents  on  this  subject  and 
show  them  that  it  would  be  to  their  own  interest  to 
send  their  children  regularly  to  school.  If  they  are 
to  keep  their  children  at  home  half  the  time,  that 
time  should  be  consecutively  and  not  a  day  now  and 
then.  Train  them  to  be  prompt  to  come  in  when  the 
bell  rings,  prompt  to  come  to  the  recitation,  prompt 
to  nnswer  when  called  upon  to  recite.  Pupils  who  are 
in  the  habit  of  strao^linsf  when  the  bell  rins-s  should 
be  reminded  of  the  fact  by  being  detained  a  few  min- 


in    i  01  viky    s<  H00]  -■  177 

atea  after  the  others  are  dismissed.  They  can  see  the 
jus  >f  this  punishment,  for  it'  they  persisl  in  dis- 
tnrhiug  the  order  of  the  school  by  coming io  Iateand 
try  to  gain  a  few  moments  for  play  at  the  expense  <>f 
tli*-  rest  of  the  school,  they  should  be  compelled  to 
make  up  this  time  while  those  who  have  been  prompt 
are  permitted  to  play. 

II.     MANNERS. 

It  is  often  remarked  that  the  youth  of  the  present 
day  are  not  so  polite  and  do  not  show  that  respect 
for  superiors  which  characterized  the  youth  of  the  pre- 
ceding generation.  "It  was  not  so  when  I  was 
young,"  is  an  expression  often  upon  the  lips  of 
elderly  persons.  It  is  true,  also,  that  the  American 
people  are  more  lacking  in  these  qualities  than  the 
Old  World  inhabitants.  This  fact  is  owing  to  our 
tree  Belf-government,  which  fosters  an  independent 
spirit,  the  opposite  of  a  fawning,  cringing  servility. 
While  this  independent  spirit  should  not  be  crushed 
out,  but  rather  encouraged,  the  youth  should  be 
taught  true  manners,  which  consist  in  treating  fel- 
low  beings  as  having  equal  rights  to  "  life,  liberty  and 
the  pursuit  of  happim  as." 
->3.) 

1.    Polit  /<-  is. — The  teacher  will  find  frequent  oppor- 
tunity to  ^ive  instruction  on  the  duty  of  being  politi 
strangers,  to  teachers,  and  to  companions.    School  chil- 
dren frequently  insult,  or  in  various  ways  act  impu- 

ntly,  towards  strangers  who  may  happen  to  pass  the 
school-house  during  play  hours.    The  teacher  should 
12 


178  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

try  to  check  any  such  conduct  at  once,  and  take  the 
opportunity  to  give  a  lecture  on  politeness.  Pupils  fail 
sometimes  to  speak  in  a  respectful  manner  to  the 
teacher  or  to  each  other.  The  teacher  should  call 
attention  to  these  points,  and  remind  the  pupil  of  his 
want  of  politeness.  The  teacher  should  always  speak 
and  act  politely  toward  pupils  wherever  he  may  meet 
them,  thus  teaching  by  example. 

2.  Respect. — He  who  has  no  respect  for  himself 
will  have  none  for  others.  There  is  a  kind  of  pride 
which  every  one  should  possess.  It  is  that  pride 
which  leads  us  to  do  unto  others  as  we  would  have 
them  do  unto  us.  We  should  take  pride  in  doing 
right,  and  thus  have  respect  for  ourselves  by  so  con- 
ducting our  manners  as  to  give  no  offense  to  others. 
A  respect  for  the  rights,  property  and  person  of 
others  is  but  obeying  the  Golden  Rule,  as  well  as 
obevin^  the  laws  of  our  land.  Children  should  be 
taught  by  example  and  precept  that  others  have  rights 
which  they  should  be  bound  to  respect.  School  and 
other  public  property  is  too  frequently  the  object  of 
wanton  destruction,  or  the  subject  for  defacement 
with  knives,  pencils,  etc.  Will  you  find  a  school 
house  that  has  been  built  one  year  in  all  this  country 
that  does  not  bear  the  marks  of  a  pencil  or  pocket- 
knife  to  a  greater  or  less  extent?  Children  should 
be  taught  that  the  property  belongs  to  their  parents, 
to  every  one  in  the  district,  and  that  they  have  no 
more  right  to  deface  or  destroy  it  than  if  it  were 
their  neighbor's.  They  should  be  made  acquainted 
with  the  laws  of  the  State  in  regard  to  such  defile- 
ment.    Something  must  be  done  to  check  this  spirit 


IN    <  OUNTRY    schools.  179 

of  vandalism,  which  seems  to  be  gaining  ground  in 
this  country,  and  I  know  of  no  better  place  to  begin 
educating  the  people  to  better  respect  public  property 
than  in  the  district  school. 

3.  Kindness. —  Boyfl  arc  sometimes  cruel  to  their 
playmates,  especially  to  those  younger  and  weaker 
than  themselves.  The  teacher  should  not  only  see 
that  no  one  under  his  charge  is  imposed  upon,  but  he 
should  take  such  opportunities  to  inculcate  a  spirit  of 
kindness,  not  only  towards  human  beings,  but 
towards  the  brute  creation.  Teach  them  that  kind- 
ness is  a  wonderful  power;  that  it  will  conquer  where 
fear  will  not.  Show  them  what  influence  they  may 
possess  over  others,  and  over  animals,  by  being  kind 
to  them. 

4.  Generosity. — ft  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge  upon 
this  head.  Examples  will  be  easily  found  upon  which 
to  preach  a  lesson  of  generosity.  Von  can  not  place 
a  number  of  individuals  together  without  it  being 
necessary  for  the  general  welfare,  that  certain  rights 
and  privileges  and  property  be  yielded  from  one  per- 
son to  others.  This  quality  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
the  existence  of  the  social  state.  Even  animals  which 
are  in  the  habit  <»f  living  together  yield  to  each  other 
certain  privileges  and  share  each  other's  food. 

.').  Reverence. — This  is  closely  allied  to  respect.  In 
fact,  all  the  points  in  tic-  outline  are  mutually  depend* 
cut  and  blend  into  each  Other.  Bu1  we  should  teach 
that  there  ie  a  kind  and  benevolent  Father  who 
watches  over  us.  and  has  the  universe  in  charge,  and 
who  rules  with  justice  ami  equity,  bul  whose  ways 
arc  Bometimea  to  us  mysterious,  ami  that  we,  lnschil- 


180  METHODS   OF   TEACHING 

dren  and  subjects  of  his  sovereign  will,  should  rever- 
euce  and  obey  him.  This  is  a  quality  of  true  man- 
ners, to  reverence  an  aknowledged  superior  power. 
Our  earthly  parents  claim  also  our  reverence.  They  who 
have  watched  over  us  from  infancy,  and  provided  for 
our  future  welfare,  certainly  can  claim  a  respect  which 
amounts  to  reverence.  The  commandment,  "  Honor 
thy  father  and  mother,"  if  universally  obeyed,  wTould 
be  a  mighty  factor  in  reforming  the  human  race.  As 
the  teacher  stands  in  loco  parentis  for  the  time  being, 
he  also  demands  a  respect  which  may  be  called  rever- 
ence. While  the  teacher  should  be  on  familiar  terms 
with  his  pupils,  he  should  ever  maintain  his  dignity, 
and  teach  pupils  that  on  account  of  his  position  he 
demands  a  certain  degree  of  reverence.  A  teacher 
will  have  but  little  control  over  pupils  who  have  not 
this  respect,  and  a  respect  which  may  be  called  rever- 
ence, unless  he  has  it  by  fear,  and  he  can  teach  but 
little  who  governs  by  fear.  Age  demands  a  sort  of 
reverence  from  youth,  so  long,  at  least,  as  age  is 
respectful. 

6.  Purity  of  Speech. — A  gentleman  may  be  known 
by  his  speech.  The  young  of  our  day  are,  in  many 
localities,  very  much  addicted  to  the  use  of  profanity. 
It  is  not  strange,  however;  when  they  have  teachers 
on  every  hand,  when  the  parents  and  companions  of 
the  child  constantly  use  profane  language,  it  is  not 
strange  that  the  child  learns  it.  It  is  the  teacher's 
duty  to  teach  them  that  it  is  wrong,  that  it  is  a  viola- 
tion of  the  moral  code,  as  well  as  a  gross  violation  of 
etiquette.  The  country  is  also  full  of  slang,  and  our 
youth,  from  infancy,  almost,  speak  in  the  language  of 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  ls| 

slang.  While  it  istraethat  there  are  some  expressions, 
generally  called  slang,  which  arc  very  forcible,  and 
might  be  used  occasionally  to  afford  variety  and  em- 
phasis to  our  Language,  the  constant  use  of  such  ex- 
pressions is  but  a  sign  of  weakness,  and  they  Lose  their 
force  by  being  wrongfully  applied  and  too  frequently 
used. 

It  is  of  little  use  to  punish  pupils  for  swearing.  In 
nine  eases  out  of  ten,  the  offender  is  only  confirmed 
in  bis  habit.  As  soon  as  he  gets  out  of  hearing  of 
the  teacher  he  will  very  likely  swear  at  him  for  having 
punished  him.  His  only  care  will  thenceforth  be,  not 
to  keep  from  swearing,  but  to  sWoar  when  the  teacher 
does  not  bear  it.  The  better  way  is  to  talk  to  the 
school  about  the  habit  and  try  to  persuade  them  to 
abandon  it.  Y<>u  take  five  minutes  some  day,  and 
when  you  have  the  attention  of  the  whole  schol,  talk 
to  them  in  this  manner:  Boys,  I  have  noticed  you 
often  when  playing.  Mid  ;ometimes  I  have  heard  some 
of  yon  Bwear  and  use  Language  which, it  seems  tome, 
you  would  not  like  to  repeat,  now  if  I  were  to  ask 
you.  Now,  I  have  no  doubt  you  hear  somebody  swear 
almost  ••very  day  of  your  lives,  and  you  have  learned 
when  you  hardly  knew  yon  were  learning  it,  and  per- 
haps Borne  of  you  may  think  it  is  not  wrong  because 
many  men  swear.  Did  yon  oever  think  that  men 
do  wrong  as  well  as  boy-,  and  if  we  would  try  to 
do  what  is  righl  in  the  world  it  will  not  do  to  copy 

er  men  and  do  everything  they  do.  Some  men  will 
.-■  :tl  horses  and  commit  murder.  I>o  you  think  it 
would  be  right  for  you  to  do  bo  because  these  men 
do?     It  is  very  likely  that  these  men  learned  to  swear 


182 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING 


when  they  were  small  boys  like  some  of  you,  and  it 
became  such  a  habit  that  it  was  almost  impossible  to 
break  it  off.  Now,  let  me  tell  you  to  try  and  not  be 
a  slave  to  any  habit.  It  is  not  hard  to  form  habits 
now  when  you  are  young,  and  not  very  hard  to  break 
off  bad  habits,  not  half  as  hard  as  when  you  get 
older.  Now,  let  me  ask  you  to  quit  this  habit  just  as 
soon  as  you  can.  You  will  forget  and  say  bad  words 
before  you  think,  but  you  must  think  and  be  on  your 
guard.  Now,  how  many  will  try  to  keep  from  swear- 
ing or  using  bad  language  ?  I  mean  those  who  have 
not  been  guilty  as  well  as  those  who  have.  Hold  up 
your  hands,  as  many  of  you  as  will  try  to  avoid  it. 
Now,  that  you  have  promised  to  try,  I  hope  you  will 
try,  and  I  do  not  expect  to  hear  very  much  swearing 
again. 

This  kind  of  moral  suasion  will  have  a  much  more 
salutary  effect  than  any  kind  of  punishment  could 
have. 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  let  me  say  with  Milton, 
keep  your  pupils  "  stirred  up  with  high  hopes  of  liv- 
ing to  be  brave  men  and  worthy  patriots,  dear  to  God 
and  fam  .is  to  all  ages." 


CHAPTER  XI. 


MODEL  RECITATIONS. 

ADVANCED   GEOGRAPHY. 

Subject  <>f  the  lesson— State  of  Iowa. 

[Pupils  take  their  places  at  the  recitation  seats  at  call 

of  teacher  or  tap  of  bell.] 

N    te. — Each  pupil  has  a  copy  of  the  outline  on  p. — 

Teacher — John,  can  you  step  to  the  black-board  and 
draw  an  outline  map  of  Iowa,  marking  the  principal 
points  of  interest." 

John — I  will  try,  Sir. 

Teacher — Henry,  you  may  tell  us  what  you  can  about 
the  position  of  Iowa. 

Henry — It  lies  between  Latitude  40',.  and  4^'..  X. 
and  Longitude,  r,}  and  20  W.  from  \\  ashington.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  X.  bv  Minnesota,  on  the  E.  by  Til i— 
i  J,  on  the  south  b\  M-souri,  and  on  the  W.  by  N  - 
braska. 

S    vera!  hands  raised.] 

Teacher     Robert 

Robert — It  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Dakota  also. 

Teacher    Very  good.    Any  other  criticisms  or  ad- 


184  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

ditions  to  what  has  been  said  on  this  point?  [Mary's 
hand  is  raised.]     What  is  it  Mary? 

Mary — It  lies  between  the  great  rivers,  the  Mississ- 
ippi and  Missouri. 

Teacher — Very  good.  That  fact,  however,  will  come 
out  under  the  topic,  Rivers.  Katy  you  may  tell  us 
something  about  its  size. 

Katy — Its  area  is  55,045  square  miles. 

Teacher — That  is  correct,  but  you  could  not  proba- 
bly remember  that  number  very  long.  Try  and  remem- 
ber the  round  number,  55000.  But  let  us  compare  it 
with  other  states  and  countries.  [Hands  raised.] 
George. 

George — Georgia,  Florida  and  Michigan  are  each  a 
little  larger.  It  is  larger  than  either  New  York  or 
Pennsylvania. 

[Teacher  calls  on  William  whose  hand  is  raised.] 

William — It  is  very  nearly  the  size  of  Illinois,  and 
more  than  forty  times  as  large  as  Rhode  Island,  the 
smallest  state,  and  one-fifth  as  large  as  Texas,  the  larg- 
est state. 

[Henry  is  called  upon.]  Henry — It  is  larger  than 
either  Ireland  or  Scotland  and  somewhere  near  the  size 
of  England. 

Note. — In  the  following  model  recitati  ns  in  this  book  it  is  under- 
stood that  the  teacher  has  called  upon  the  pupil  -whose  name  precedes 
the  answer.  The  pupils  raise  their  hands  when  wishing  to  criticise 
or  report  additional  matter  and  when  a  question  is  put  to  the  class  as 
a  whole.  The  teacher  selects  the  pupil  whom  he  wishes  shall  ans- 
wer the  question  and  calls  him  by  name.  Snapping  ringers  to  at- 
tract the  teacher's  attention  should  not  be  allowed.  The  most  back- 
ward pupils  should  be  most  frequently  called  upon,  the  brighter  ones 
will  raise  their  hands  the  most  frequently  and  get  the  benefit  of  the 
recitation  without  special  effort  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 


IN   COUNTRY   SCHOOLS.  185 

Teacher — Carrie,  describe  the  surface  of  Iown. 

Carrie — There  are  no  mountains  or  very  high  hills. 
There  are  bluffs  along  the  streams.  It  is  called  a  IVai- 
rie  State,  but  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  timber 
on  the  banks  of  the  streams.  It  has  a  general  slope  to 
the  south. 

Teacher  -Anything  further  under  this  head? 

John — There  are  two  minor  drainage  slopes,  one 
south-eastward  to  the  Mississippi,  the  other  south-west- 
ward to  the  Missouri. 

Teacher  -Class,  how  can  you  tell  by  looking  at  a 
map  what  direction  the  land  slopes? 

Mary  -By  the  way  the  rivers  run.  They  always 
run  down  hill. 

Teacher  —What  is  the  ridge  of  land  from  which  the 
water  tlows  in  Opposite  directions  called? 

Manx-  voices — A  water  shed. 

Teacher— James,  what  of  the  rivers  of  Iowa? 

James— The  Mississippi  River  forms  its  eastern  boun- 
dary  and  the-  Missouri  its  western.    The  principal  rivers 

in  the  interior  of  the  State  are  the  Des  Moines,  Skunk, 
Iowa  and  Cedar  rivers  which  run  towards  the  south-east 
and  empty  into  the  Mississippi.  The  Little  Sioux  and 
Nishnabotany  run  south-west  and  empty  into  the  Mis- 
souri. 

Teacher     Albert,  what  of  Lakes? 

Albert — There  an'  no  large  lakes,  but  numerous 
small  ones  in  the  northern  part.       'Die   largest   is  Spirit 

L  ike  containing  about  u  square  miles. 

Henry— The     Walled     Lakes     are    great   curiosities. 

There  is  an  embankment  ol  earth  all  around  them  as 

though  thrown  up  by  the  hand  of  in. in. 


186  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

Teacher — Can  any  one  explain  this  phenomenon.  [No 
answer.]  I  will  leave  this  point  until  to-morrow.  I 
want  each  one  to  try  and  find  an  explanation.  Ask 
your  parents  or,  perhaps,  some  of  you  have  a  large  at- 
las of  Iowa,  which  will  explain  it.  There  is  a  natural 
cause  for  this  singular  phenomenon  and  I  want  you  to 
find  it  out.     We  will  pass  to  the  next  topic. 

This  is  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  manner  of  conduct- 
ing a  recitation  in  Advanced  Geography.  The  teacher 
who  can  not  get  up  enthusiasm  in  his  class  in  this  wav 
is  a  failure.  The  remainder  of  the  recitation  will  be 
similar  to  the  foregoing.  If  the  time  will  not  permit  the 
full  discussion  of  one  state,  make  two  or  more  lessons  of 
it.  The  map  drawn  by  the  pupil  sent  to  the  board 
should  be  criticised  before  the  close  of  the  recitation  and 
the  necessary  talk  about  the  next  lesson  should  not  be 
neglected.  The  teacher  may  impart  some  information 
not  found  in  the  text-books,  concerning  the  next  lesson, 
give  instructions  as  to  the  manner  of  study,  &c,  &c. 
When  the  next  recitation  is  called  the  first  step  should 
be  a  review  of  the  last  lesson  and  to  call  up  any  points 
left  over  for  investigation. 

PRIMARY    GEOGRAPHY. 

I  here  give  a  report  of  a  lesson  to  a  class  just  begin- 
ning the  study.  The  teacher  steps  to  the  board  and 
draws  a  straight  line,  saying,  Children,  we  are  now  go- 
ing to  commence  the  study  of  Geography.  The  word 
means  a  description  of  the  surface  of  the  earth.  We 
live  on  the  earth  and  Geography  describes  what  we 
may  see  on  its  surface  or  outside.  We  are  going  to  be- 
gin right  at  home.     Suppose  I  should  want  to  write  to 


IN   COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  187 

one  of  my  friends  in  Ohio  and  tell  him  that  I  was  teach- 
ing school  and  wanted  to  describe  to  him  just  what  kind 

of  a  school-room  I  had  and  how  every  thing  was  ar- 
ranged in  it,  how  could  I  best  make  it  plain  to  him? 
Hands  up  now.  all  who  can  answer. 

John.  John — Y<  »u  o  »uld  make  a  picture  of  the  school- 
house  and  send  it  to  him. 

Teacher- -Yes,  that  would  show  it  plainly,  but  I  can 
not  draw  well  enough  to  make  a  picture  and  if  I  could 
it  would  take  a  good  deal  of  time.  Can  you  think  of 
no  other  way?  I  will  tell  you.  I  can  draw  a  map  of 
this  school-room,  so  that  our  friend  in  Ohio  can  see 
exactly  how  we  are  situated  here.  First,  we  must  know 
something  about  direction.  Who  can  tell  me  which  di- 
rection  I  am  pointing,  (pointing  to  the  north).  Several 
voices — north.  How  do  you  know  that  is  north,  i  No 
answer).     Well,  where  does  the  sun  rise?     Mary. 

M  try — In  the  east. 

Teacher — And  where  does  the  sun  set? 

Mary— In  the  west. 

Teacher — Very  well,  now  if  you  stand  with  your 
right  hand  pointing  to  the  east  and  your  left  hand  point- 
ing to  the  west,  your  face  will  be  to  the  north  and  your 
back,  where,  class? 

S  iveral  voices — To  the  south. 

Teacher — Well,  now  you  know  the  directions.  On 
a  map  we  always  represent  the  top  part  as  north  and 
tne  bottom  will  be  what,  of  course,  then,  class?     South. 

Teacher — And  the  right  hand  will  be  what:  East. 
And  the  left:  West.  This  line,  I  have  drawn  on  the 
board  will  represent  the  north  and  this,  (drawing  anoth- 
er   line    parallel    to    it  i.  the    south,  and    these  lines,  (con- 


188  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

necting  the  two)  will  represent  east  and  west.  Now 
we  have  shown  the  north,  south,  east  and  west  sides  of 
our  school-room  by  straight  lines.  Now  who  will  step 
to  the  board  and  "make  a  dot  to  represent  the  right  place 
for  the  stove?  (A  pupil  steps  up  and  makes  a  mark). 
Is  that  right,  class?     (Hands  go  up).    John. 

John — I  think  it  should  be  nearer  the  south. 

Teacher — Yes,  (pupil  changes   it)   now  it  is  about 
right. 

In  this  manner  give  each  one  of  the  class  an  oppor- 
tunity to  mark  some  point  on  the  map. 

Teacher — Now  children,  we  have  a  map  of  the  school- 
room. It  is  much  easier  made  than  a  picture  and  it 
shows  where  everything  is  placed.  We  could  draw  a 
map  of  the  school-house  yard  in  the  same  way  and  to- 
morrow we  will  draw  one.  We  could  also  draw  the 
map  of  a  man's  farm,  or  of  the  school  district  which  is 
made  up  of  a  number  of  farms,  or  of  the  township  which 
is  made  up  of  a  number  of  districts,  and  so  on  to  the  coun- 
ty and  state.  Here  we  have  maps  in  our  books  of  the 
states.  These  crooked  lines  represent  rivers,  or  creeks, 
these  dots,  towns  and  cities.  The  states  are  colored  differ- 
ently so  as  to  make  them  appear  plainer  on  paper. 
We  could  not  make  a  picture  of  any  thing  so  large  as  a 
county  or  state.  We  can  only  draw  a  picture  of  what 
we  can  see  with  the  eye  by  standing  in  one  place.  But 
by  travelling  we  know  that  this  is  a  very  large  earth 
on  which  we  live.  We  can  see  only  a  small  part  at 
one  time.  Now  no  one  man  has  travelled  enough  to 
see  everything,  but  many  different  men  have  travelled, 
many  different  ones  have  written  down  what  they  have 
seen,  and  drawn  maps  of  small  portions  and  measured 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  189 

distances  and  so  by  putting  all  these  together  we  gel 
a  complete  description  of  the  earth  and  arc-  able  to  rep- 
resent it  on  paper  by  lines  and  dots  and  colors,  and  these 
representations  we  call  maps,  and  the  descriptions  of 

places  ami  of  things  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  called 
Geography.      Nbw,how  many  think  they  can  tell  me 

to-morrow  what  Geography  is  and  what  a  map  is? 
All  hands  go  up).  Very  well,  I  will  ask  you  to-mor- 
row. But  I  must  now  give  you  something  for  to-mor- 
row's lesson.  I  will  write  some  words  on  the  board 
ami  I  want  you  to  go  to  your  books  and  find  the  words 
and  find  out  what  they  mean.  The  books  will  tell  you. 
You  will  find  them  on  page  |  here  shows  them  the  place) 
and  I  want  you  all  to  be  able  to  tell  me  what  these 
words  mean.  These  words  are: 
i.     Continent. 

2.  Island. 

3.  Peninsula. 

4.  Cape. 

5.  Isthmus. 

This  will  do  for  your  lesson.  Write  these  words  on 
your  slates  as  soon  as  you  take  your  seats.  If  any  do 
not  understand  what  I  mean,  speak  and  I  will  explain 
further.     Class  excused. 

U.    S.    HISTORY. 

The  first  day  the  teacher  has  explained  to  the  cl 
his  mode   <»f  teaching,  and  by  reading  with    the   class 
the  first  few  pages  of  some  school  history,  he  has  devel- 
oped the  following  outline,  and  it  is  now   on  the   black- 
board. 

Discovery  <>/'  America. 


190  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

1.  Alleged  Discovery  by  Northmen. 

2.  Circumstances  which  led  to  the  Discovery  by 
Columbus. 

3.  Nativity  and  Character  of  Columbus. 

4.  Difficulties  in  the  way. 

5.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

6.  The  Voyage. 

7.  Land  Discovered  and  Date. 

8.  Other  Voyages  of  Columbus. 

9.  Death  of  Columbus. 

Teacher — Henry,  what  can  you  tell  us  about  the  first 
discovery  of  America? 

Henry — I  could  not  find  anything  about  the  North- 
men in  my  book.  It  commences  with  Columbus. 
(Hands'up). 

Teacher — Philip.  Philip — The  Northmen  claimed 
to  have  discovered  this  country  about  the  year  1001. 

Teacher — Who  were  the  Northmen? 

Philip — The}'  were  the  people  who  lived  in  Norway, 
Sweden  and  Iceland. 

Teacher — This  question  is  not  of  great  importance. 
It  is  very  probable  that  these  northern  sea  kings,  as  they 
were  called,  sailed  westward  and  landed  on  the  coast  of 
North  America,  but  they  made  no  permanent  settle- 
ments and  the  route  was  lost  and  the  existence  of  this 
Continent  forgotten.  David,  you  may  tell  us  what  you 
can  in  regard  to  the  second  topic. 

David — Men  had  come  to  believe  that  the  earth  was 
a  sphere  and  supposed  that  Asia  extended  east  until  it 
nearly  reached  the  western  extremities  of  Europe. 
The  mariner's  compass  had  been  invented  and  men  were 
enabled  to  make  voyages  out  of  the  sight  of  land.     Men 


in    COUNTRY   schools.  L91 

had  a  great  desire  to  find  a  nearer  route  to  Asia  as 
India  and  China  were  celebrated  for  their  great  riches 
and  trade  had  been  carried  on  with  them  for  many 
years. 

Teacher — Very  good,  David.  I  [as  any  one  anything 
further  on  this  point? 

George — I  read  somewhere  that  pieces  of  carved 
wood  and  some  strange  plants  had  been  washed  on  the 
shores  of  Portugal,  which  led  Columbus  to  think  there 
was  land  beyond  the  waters. 

Joseph — And  a  canoe,  and  the  bodies  of  two  men  dif- 
ferent from  the  people  of  Europe  wen-  washed  on  shore. 

Teacher — Yes,  these  are  some  of  the  principal  cir- 
cumstances which  led  Columbus  to  attempt  this  won- 
derful work.     James,  you  may  take  the  next  topic. 

James — Columbus  was  born  in  Genoa,  Italy,  in  the 
year  1435.  I  can  not  tell  anything  about  his  character. 
I  suppose  he  must  have  been  a  great  man. 

Teacher — Yes,  Columbus  was  indeed  a  great  man 
for  he  accomplished  a  great  work,  but  what  is  necessary 
to  make  a  man  great?  Suppose  Columbus  had  said, 
"Well,  I  suppose  there  is  a  new  route  to  the  hidies  to 
be  discovered  by  sailing  west  and  it  would  be  a  great 
thing  to  accomplish,  but  I  have  no  means,  I  can  do 
nothing:"  do  you  think  this  Continent  would  have  ever 
been  discovered  by  him?  It  was  energy  and  persever- 
ance which  made  Columbus  a  great  man.  lie  was  not 
disheartened  bv  difficulties,  but  worked   away   until   his 

object  was  accomplished.      But  this  brings  us  to  the 
next  topic,  The  Difficulties  in  the  Way.    Charles,  you 

may  enlighten  us  upon  this  point. 

Charles  —Columbus  was  poor  ami  had  no  means  of  his 


192  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

own.  He  applied  to  his  own  government  and  then  to  the 
King  of  Portugal  and  then  to  Spain  but  was  met  with  a 
refusal  each  time. 

I  will  not  carry  this  any  further.  The  reader  has 
some  idea  now  of  the  manner  of  conducting  a  recitation. 
It  is  not  to  be  supposed,  of  course,  that  the  pupils  will 
all  answer  so  well  as  here  represented,  and  it  must  be 
heljl  in  mind  that  much  is  omitted.  The  remarks  made 
by  the  teacher  and  the  questions  asked  to  draw  out 
backward  pupils,  if  all  given  here  would  occupy  too 
much  space.  When  the  teacher  has  thus  gone  through 
with  the  topic  outline  he  should  recapitulate  the  main 
points  in  concert  or  otherwise,  and  write  on  the  black- 
board the  principal  date  or  dates.  In  this  lesson  there 
should  be  but  one  date  put  down,  1492. 

Encourage  pupils  to  tell  what  they  know  in  their 
own  language.  You  can  always  tell  when  they  are 
quoting  the  language  of  the  text-book.  It  is  far  better 
that  they  use  their  own  language,  though  it  be  ungram- 
matical,  hesitating  and  crude.  You  have  the  opportu- 
nity then  to  criticise  and  correct  their  language  and  thus 
incidentally  cultivate  their  powers  of  expression. 

The  story  of  Columbus  is  a  most  interesting  one.  It 
is  much  more  important  that  the  class  spend  considera- 
ble time  getting  the  interesting  details  of  this  subject  in 
order  to  fix  the  main  facts  and  date,  than  to  commit  to 
memory  the  names  and  dates  of  all  the  discoverers  and 
explorers  from  that  time  down  to  the  settlement  at 
Jamestown.  Several  lessons  may  be  made  on  the  out- 
line above,  giving  different  pupils  different  topics  each 
time  to  report  upon.  The  next  lesson  to  be  outlined 
may  be,  Other  Discoveries.     Under  this  may  be  brought 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  L93 

out  the  principal  voyages  and  discoveries  only,  and  will 
bring  the  subject  down  to  the  period  of  settlement.  The 
pupils  should  write  these  topics  on  their  slates,  or  it 
would  be  well  to  have  them  write  on   paper,  or  in  a 

blank  book  and  preserve  them  for  Intuit'  use. 

The   energetic    teacher    will    gather    from    these    few 

hints  the  true  method  <>t  teaching  history. 

GRAMMAR. 

The  outline  on  page  —  being  on  the  board  the  teacher 
and  class  discuss  it  somewhat  as  follows: 

Teacher — Mary,  can  you  tell  me  what  a  noun  is? 

Mary — A  noun  is  a  name. 

Teacher — Yes.  Every  noun  is  a  name,  and  every 
name  is  a  noun.  All  those  words  which  are  the  names 
of  objects  which  you  can  see,  hear,  feel,  taste  or  smell, 
and  all  words  which  are  names  of  qualities  of  objects, 
as  goodness,  sweetness,  all  names  of  anything  you  can 
Conceive  of.  as  peace,  purity,  love.  joy.  &C  Mar  v.  what 
noun  in  this  sentence?  Riches  take  to  themselves  wings 
.and  fly  away. 

Mary — Riches. 

Teacher — Why? 

M   i  .      Because*  it  is  the  name  of  something. 

Teacher — Now  we  have  different  kinds  of  nouns  and 
•  have  here   arranged   the   different   kinds   in   an  OUtlim 
■  I  may  better  fix  them  in  your  minds.      I  have  made 
two  cl  General  and  Special,  that  is  all  nouns  are 

either  Common  <>r  Proper,  but  thm  we  sometimes  have 
them  arranged  in  special  cl.  is  Abstract,  Verbal, 

Collective  and  Class  nouns.     You  have  studied  Your  les- 
13 


194  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

son  in  the  book  as  I  wished  you,  to  and  now  who  can  tell 
me  what  a  Common  noun  is?     Carrie. 

Carrie — A  Common  noun  is  a  common  name  or  a 
name  common  to  a  class  of  objects,  as  book,  tree, 
house,  etc. 

Teacher — Yes.  When  we  say  book,  we  do  not 
mean  any  particular  book  but  the  name  applies  to  books 
as  a  class  of  objects.  Class,  is  horse  a  common 
noun?  Yes.  Why?  Because  it  is  a  name  common  to 
a  class  of  animals. 

The  teacher  will  multiply  such  examples  as  these,  as 
he  thinks  necessary. 

Teacher — James,  what  is  a  Proper  noun? 

James — A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  a  particular 
individual  or  object  as  John,  New  York,  etc. 

Teacher — Yes.  When  I  say  John,  I  do  not  mean 
any  boy  or  man,  but  one  particular  boy  or  man  whose 
name  is  John,  so  when  I  say  New  York  I  do  not  mean 
any  city  but  that  particular  city  which  is  named  New 
York.  I  think  you  now  understand  the  distinctions  of 
Common  and  Proper  nouns.  But  here  is  a  point  I  wish 
you  to  bear  in  mind,  that  Proper  nouns  are  always  writ- 
ten with  a  capital  letter  and  never  in  any  other  way. 
If  you  see  the  name  of  a  town  or  person  spelled  with- 
out a  capital,  anywhere,  you  may  know  it  is  a  mistake, 
it  makes  no  difference  who  wrote  it.  I  want  you  to  re- 
member this.  Thousands  of  people  make  such  mis- 
takes every  day.  Never  make  this  mistake.  If  you 
learn  nothing  else  here  to-day,  remember  this,  and  if  you 
put  it  into  practice  always,  it  may  be  worth  hundreds  of 
dollars  to  you.  You  seem  surprised,  but  let  me  explain. 
Suppose  I  had  charge  of  a  large  school  where  there 


IN   COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  195 

were  several  teachers  employed  and  T  wanted  to  hire  a 
man  to  teach  in  my  school.  Suppose  I  should  gel  a  let- 
ter from  a  man  making  application  for  a  school  and  he 
should  address  the  envelope  in  the  way,  I  lure  write 
it  on  the  board:  danvtlle,  indtana.  Do  vou  suppose  I 
would  read  the  letter  any  further.-  He  may  be  an  in- 
telligent man  and  a  good  teacher  in  main-  respects,  but 
I  would  not  think  so  from  the  letter,  and  I  would  not 
waste  further  time  trying  to  find  out.  In  ninety-nine 
cases  out  of  a  hundred  I  would  save  time  by  not  even 
opening  his  letter.  So  in  all  kinds  of  business  such  lit- 
tle matters  as  these  go  a  great  way.  Let  me  urge  vou 
to  take  particular  pains  to  spell  and  capitalize  properly, 
if  vou  do  not  make  such  great  advances  in  other  things. 
There  are  other  rules  for  the  use  of  capitals,  but  this  is 
one  of  great  importance  and  I  wish  to  impress  it  on 
your  minds. 

In  a  similar  manner  let  the  remainder  of  the  outline 
be  discussed.  The  teacher  need  not  talk  so  much  as 
here  represented,  but  the  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to 
criticise,  ask  questions,  and  give  definitions.  I  have  here 
given  a  rather  lengthy  talk  for  the  teacher  in  order  to 
illustrate  the  manner  in  which  it  is  necessary,  SOmetimi 
to  talk  to  a  class. 

ADVANC  ED    ARITHMETIC. 

The  class  are  using  /uif>  Third  Part.  Bach  pupil 
IS  going  as  East  as  he  can.  It  is  impossible  to  keep  a 
i  lass  together  in  a  country  school,  owing  to  irregularity 
of  attendance.  The  pupils  are  working  in  various  parts 
of  Profit  and  L' 

Teacher — On  page  -  \S,  the  8th  example,  Charles;  the 


196  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

7th,  James.  On  page  249,  the  7th,  Mary;  the  8th,  Wil- 
liam ;  the  9th,  Lucy.  On  page  250,  Henry,  the  10th. 
Place  your  examples  on  the  board  as  rapidly  as  possi- 
ble.    Let  us  see  how  neat  you  can  make  your  work. 

While  this  section  is  at  the  black-board  the  teacher 
gives  the  remainder  of  the  class  to  whom  he  has  not  as- 
signed examples,  an  oral  drill,  asking  questions  on  the 
principles  involved  and  making  inquiries  of  each  pupil 
as  to  progress,  or  explaining  some  point  left  over  from 
last  lesson. 

By  this  time  James  is  ready  to  explain  his  example. 

James — Example  8,  p.  248.  "A  bought  40  bales  of 
cotton,  at  $40  each,  and  sold  it  at  a  profit  of  $704;  what 
per  cent,  did  he  make?" 

Operation  : 
$40         704     176       44 

40     = = =  .44 = 44  per  cent. 

1600    400     100 

$1600 

Explanation :  If  one  bale  of  cotton  cost  $40,  40  bales 
will  cost  40  times  $40  which  are  $1600.  He  sold  it  for 
$704  more  than  it  cost  him.  $704  is  yVrro  °^  $1600,  there- 
fore he  gained  yWg-  of  what  it  cost.  tWo^tw =44  Per 
cent. 

Teacher — What  other  way  could  this  have  been 
solved,  class? 

Henry — Divide  $704  by  $1600  and  express  the  quo- 
tient in  decimal  hundredths. 

Teacher — The  principle  is  just  the  same,  but  James' 
method  is  much  plainer.  He  has  given  an  analysis  of 
the  example.  Very  good,  James,  you  are  excused. 
Lucy  may  explain  next. 


in   COUNTRY  schools.  197 

Lucy— Example  oth,  p.  249.  "  By  selling  tea  at  $1.19 
per  pound,  I  lost  15  per  (.cut;  what  the  cost  price  per 
11.  ? 

Operation : 

I.OO      .85    J    I.IQOO  I    I.4O 

.15      ^~     83 


.85  340 

34° 

o 

Explanation:  15  per  cent,  is  15  cents  on  the  dollar, 
so  what  cost  me  $1.00  if  I  lose  15  cts.,  I  must  sell  for 
$1.00  — $.15  which  is  $.85,  so  as  often  as  $.85  is  con- 
tained in  the  selling  price  $1.19,  so  many  times  is  $1.00 
contained  in  the  cost  price.    $1.19-^.85  =  1.40= $1.40. 

When  mistakes  are  made  either  in  the  expression  on 
the  board  or  in  the  explanation,  the  teacher  should  call 
out  criticisms  from  the  class  and  make  such  com- 
ments himself  as  he  may  deem  necessary. 

Teacher  —Observe,  class,  that  the  per  cent,  of  gain  or 
is  always  estimated  on  the  cost  and  never  on  the 
selling  price.  This  is  a  very  simple  principle  if  you  will 
just  think  that  you  can  not  tell  whether  you  are  going 
'o  gain  or  lose  on  any  article  which  you  are  going  to 
sell  unless  yon  know  what  it  cost  you.  If  you  sell  for 
than  cost,  you  lose;  if  for  more  than  cost,  you  gain. 
Although  it  is  very  simple,  here  is  just  where  a  great 
many  fail  in  solving  these  examples. 

REMARK 

I  have  in  this  chapter  given  a  few  model  lessons,  or 

partial  lessons,  sufficient,  I  think,  to  illustrate  the  man- 


198  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

ner  of  teaching  these  branches.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
give  a  model  lesson  in  each  branch  as  the  idea  may  be 
easily  grasped  from  these  here  given  when  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  chapters  on  the  respective  branches. 
It  would  be  impossible  to  represent  on  paper  the  actual 
work  of  a  recitation  conducted  by  a  live  teacher,  but  it 
is  hoped  these  few  examples  will  prove  suggestive  and 
awaken  the  true  method  in  the  teacher  who  begins  as  a 
tyro  in  the  work. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 

Under  this  head  I  propose  to  make  a  few  suggestions 
which  could  not  well  be  classified  under  any  of  the  fore- 
going chapters.  I  shall  not  have  any  general  order  or 
plan,  but  shall,  in  a  discursive,  irregular  way.  offer  some 
thoughts  not  spoken  of  before  in  this  book,  and  perhaps 
recapitulate  and  add  something  to  what  has  already  been 
said. 

i.  Unconscious  Teaching.  In  the  opening  chapter  I 
have  hinted  at  the  fact  that  a  man  teaches  when  he  least 
seems  to  be  teaching.  All  that  a  man  does  and  thinks 
goes  to  make  up  his  character,  and  a  man's  character 
impress*  3  itself  upon  all  who  come  in  contact  with  him. 
If  his  life  has  been  tilled  with  good  deeds  and  thoughts, 
a  certain  good  influence  will  tlow  from  him  and  exert 
itself  upon  all  with  whom  he  deals, even  upon  those  who 

know  nothing  of  his  former  life.     On  the  contrary,if  he 

has  been  a  bad  man,  has  committed  crimes,  or  indulged 

to  a  great  extent  in  wicked  thoughts,  a  bad  influence  will 

emanate  from  him.  and  influence  all  upon  whom  it  falls- 

(199) 


200  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

We  are  all,  to  a  certain  extent,  character  readers.  We 
read  persons  by  their  manner,  by  their  conversation,  by 
their  looks.  Small  children,  even,  are  good  readers  of 
character,  although  they  could  not  tell  you  by  what  rules 
they  judge.  We  take  a  liking  or  disliking  to  persons, 
and  we  cannot  tell  why. 

"  I  do  not  love  you,  Dr.  Fell, 
The  reason  why  I  can  not  tell ; 
But  this  alone  I  know  full  well, 
I  do  not  love  you,  Dr.  Fell." 

But  this  much  is  true,  that  a  good  man  will  be  gener- 
ally liked  by  everybody,  that  is,  they  will  like  him  per- 
sonally, though  they  may  hate  his  actions,  or  his  princi- 
ples, because  not  in  accordance  with  their  own  notions; 
and  a  hypocrite  will  be  generally  despised  however  well 
he  may  play  his  part. 

Every  thought  and  action  of  your  life  from  infancy  to 
manhood,  has  a  bearing  more  or  less  direct  on  your  work 
as  a  teacher.  In  other  words,  the  teacher  commences 
to  develop  in  influence  and  constantly  adds  to  his  charac- 
ter that  which  will  make  him  either  a  good  teacher,  or 
an  inferior  one. 

Remember,  then,  teacher,  that  you  are  always  teach- 
ing when  in  contact  with  others.  The  teacher  should 
be  in  every  sense  a  man.  Strive  to  cultivate  that  true 
manhood.  Keep  a  watch  upon  your  thoughts  and  ac- 
tions, and  daily  and  hourly  build  a  character  that  will 
constantly  teach  the  good,  and  the  good  only. 

But  there  are  some  men  that  are  not  very  good  nor 
very  bad,  sort  of  wooden  men,  mere  automatons  or  pup- 
pets, who  can  tell  what  they  have  learned,  as  a  parrot 
says  its  phrase  or  an  inferior  stage  actor  his  piece.     You 


l\    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  201 

often  find  them  ill  the  school-room.      Such  men  have   so 

little  character  that  they  do  very  little  unconscious  teach- 
ing. Their  presence  teaches  but  little,  because  they 
have  so  little  character  to  exert  an  influence.  For  all 
the  good  their  presence  does,  the  knowledge  might  as 

well  be  sent  into  the  school-room  through  a  telephone. 

Wain  there  are  men  whose  very  looks  and  manners 
teach  lessons.  You  feel  their  magnetic  force  when  you 
take  them  by  the  hand,  and  gather  inspiration  from  their 
eves.  The  successful  teacher,  as  well  as  the  men  who 
move  the  world,  belong  to  this  class. 

2.  Have  Sympathy  for  Pupils.  The  true  method 
of  teaching  is  drawn  from  Nature.  If  we  observe  how 
a  child  acquires  new  ideas  when  left  to  itself,  we  may 
learn  how  to  teach  it.  When  a  child  makes  a  new  dis- 
covery, or  gets  a  new  idea,  the  first  thing  it  does  is  to 
make  some  one  else  acquainted  with  the  fact.  How 
eager  the  child  is  to  show  its  mother  any  new  object  it 
finds,  or  to  tell  about  any  novelty  it  has  seen.  Observe 
how  a  boy  will  act  after  he  has  been  to  a  circus  show. 
Even  the  infant  will  hold  up  its  toys  for  you  to  look  at 
and  admire.  We  should  infer  from  this,  that  children 
need  encouragement  in  all  their  studies  by  a  kind  of  at- 
tentive sympathy  with  all  their  eoffrts  to  acquire  knowl- 
edge. When  a  child  has  drawn  a  picture,  or  formed  a 
letter  on  the  slate,  and  holds  it  up  for  you  to  look  at.  you 
ignore  one  of  the  first  principles  of  teaching  it  you  tail 
to  notice  the  child's  effort.  This  principle  should  bo 
carried  out  with  all  grades  of  pupils.  Take  special  pains 
to  notice  their  efforts  and  give  kind  words  of  encoura.     - 

ment.     Never  make  discouraging  remarks  about  a  pu- 
pil's work.      If  they  have  through  carelessness  tailed   to 


202  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

do  as  well  as  you  think  they  are  capable  of  doing,  never 
make  sport  of  their  work  nor  scold,  but  say,  "  that  does 
pretty  well,  but  I  think  you  can  do  better  if  you  try." 
Always  make  favorable  comments  whenever  you  can 
conscientiously,  but  never  compare  one  pupil's  work 
with  another's.  In  the  work  of  the  best  pupils  you  can 
point  out  some  defects,  and  in  the  work  of  the  poorest 
pupils,  you  may  find  something  upon  which  you  can  fa- 
vorablv  comment.  Bv  thus  taking  an  interest  in,  and 
showing  a  sympathy  for  their  efforts  you  will  encourage 
greater  effort  and  secure  the  good  will  of  all  your  pu- 
pils. 

3.  Ride  no  Hobbies.  The  true  teacher  has  no  pet 
theory  nor  patent  method  of  teaching.  He  is  readv  at 
any  time  to  abandon  a  plan  as  soon  as  he  finds  some- 
thing better.  He  is  always  open  to  conviction.  He  is 
progressive,  and  aggressive,  radical  and  even  fanatical 
in  the  search  for  truth,  yet  conservative  and  cautious 
about  adopting  new  methods  until  he  has  given  them 
thorough  study.  He  has  a  variety  of  plans  and  uses 
different  plans  for  different  circumstances.  He  will  not 
try  to  make  a  square  block  fill  a  round  hole.  He  will 
find  objections  to  all  methods  and  adopt  that  which,  after 
mature  deliberation,  he  finds  to  be  the  least  objection- 
able. 

4.  Study  Your  own  Failures.  "The  burnt  child 
dreads  the  fire."  Here  again  we  have  Nature's  meth- 
od of  teaching.  He  makes  greatest  advances  who  is 
able  to  see  his  own  mistakes.  He  who  is  bigoted  and 
self-conceited  and  never  sees  his  own  errors,  will  make 
but  little  progress  in  an  vthing  he  undertakes.  The  teach- 
er should  observe  closely  the  results  of  his  plans  and  note 


in  country  schools.  •_'<>:; 

where  they  are  successful,  and  where  a  failure,  and  should 
govern  his  future  accordingly.  Let  him  review  each 
evening  the  work  of  the  day  and  try  and  find  a  mistake 
Jh-  has  made,  and  resolve  to  do  better  the  next  daw  A 
man  should  criticise  himself  severely,  sparing  no  self- 
si  rutiny   with  regard  to  his  own  actions. 

5.  Make  the  School-Room  Attractive.  The  teacher 
can  do  something  towards  relieving  the  monotony  of 
hare  walls  and  plain  desks  and  uncarpetcd  floor.  In 
the  first  place,  he  should  keep  the  school-room  clean,  and 
in  order;  and  next  by  use  of  pictures,  mottoes,  wreaths 
and  flowers  make  it  as  attractive  a  place  as  possible. 
The  school-room  should  be  as  attractive  in  appearance 
as  the  average  homes  of  the  pupils.  The  nature  of 
our  daily  surroundings  has  much  to  do  in  forming  our 
characters.  I  might  enlarge  upon  this  point,  but  will 
not  occupy  the  space,  as  the  fact  will  be  granted 
by  the  intelligent  reader.  You  need  not  go  to  any 
considerable  expense.  Get  a  few  pictures  framed 
and  purchase  a  half-dozen  mottoes,  and  keep  them 
-  a  part  of  your  stock  in  trade.  Your  pictures  may  be 
chromos, lithographs, or  steel  engravings  which  will  not 
COSt  much  when  neatly  framed,  but  will,  if  selected  with 
taste,  form  very  attractive  adornments  for  the  walls. 
L  :1  the  subjects  be  animals,  (lowers,  landscapes,  or  por- 
traits of  distinguished  men.  Anything  in  the  Style  ap- 
propriate to  a  bar-room  or  saloon  will,  of  course,  he  out 
oi  place  m  the  school-room.  If  framed  pictures  can  not 
be  procured,  the  engravings  from  illustrated  papers 
pasted  on  the  walls  with  wreaths  of  evergreens  encir- 
cling them,  will  form  very  attractive  objects,  for  a  time 

at  least.      A    Card    motto   surrounded    with    a    wreath    of 


204  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

evergreens,  makes  a  very  neat  appearance  on  the  wall.. 
Winter  boquets  may  be  made  of  everlasting  flowers,  or- 
namental grasses,  &c.  If  the  school-room  can  be  kept 
warm  enough,  a  few  house  plants  might  be  kept  through 
the  winter,  and  will  add  much  to  the  cheerfulness  of  the 
place.  During  Spring  and  Fall  terms,  plants  and  flow- 
ers can  be  had  in  abundance,  and  thev  should  form  a 
part  of  the  school-room  decorations. 

I  need  not  suggest  any  further  to  the  teacher  who  has 
a  love  for  the  beautiful.  If  you  love  the  school-room 
and  school  work,  and  are  a  true  man  or  woman,  you 
will  profit  by  these  suggestions. 

6.  The  Teacher  s  Library.  Books  are  to  the  teacher 
what  tools  are  to  the  mechanic.  As  a  mechanic  can  get 
along  with  a  limited  number  of  tools,  so  a  teacher  can 
get  along  with  a  limited  number  of  books,  but  as  cer- 
tain tools  are  essential  to  a  mechanic,  so  certain  books 
are  essential  to  the  teacher.  I  would  not  advise  the 
young  teacher  to  spend  a  great  part  of  his  earnings  for 
books,  nor  to  go  in  debt  for  them,  but  there  are  a  few 
books  which  he  ought  to  have,  at  almost  any  sacrifice, 
if  he  would  be  a  good  teacher.  Let  him  go  without 
paper  collars,  without  tea  or  coffee,  without  anvthing~ 
finer  than  jeans  pants,  rather  than  without  an  Unabridg- 
ed Dictionary.  Let  him  board  himself  and  live  on  ten 
cents  a  day  rather  than  do  without  certain  necessary 
books.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  any  teacher  can  so 
economize  his  means,  can  by  cutting  oft*  an  expense  here 
and  denying  himself  there,  save  money  enough  during 
one  or  two  terms  of  school  to  procure  the  essentials  of 
a  teacher's  library. 

An  Unabridged  Dictionary  (Webster's  is  more  gen- 


in  1 1 hai'kv  schcx >ls.  205 

illy  recognized,  although  Worcester's  is  also  a  stand- 
ard) is  an  indispensable  part  of  a  teacher's  outfit.  The 
Unabridged  is  a  whole  library  in  itself.     There  are  Eew 

subjects  upon  which  valuable  information  ran  not  be 
had  by  consulting  its  pages.  There  are  many  men  who 
own  Dictionaries  who  know  but  little  of  what  they  eon- 
tain.  I  would  not  only  advise  the  purchaseof  an  Una- 
bridged, but  insist  on  its  constant  use.  If  you  are  not 
already  pretty  thoroughly  read,  you  will  find  use  for  the 
Dictionary  in  reading  almost  any  species  of  composition 
you  may  take  up.  You  should  look  up  the  meaning  of 
every  word  about  which  you  have  the  slightest  doubt. 

You  should  look  up  the  meaning  of  many  simple 
words,  the  Anglo-Saxon  monosyllables  which  you 
have  used  from  infancy,  words  which  you  hear  in 
daily  conversation,  and  meet  with  in  your  daily  read- 
ing. You  will  find  the  Dictionary  valuable  read- 
fag,  notwithstanding,  as  the  old  lady  said,  the  subject 
changes  frequently.  Study  the  etymology  of  words.  It 
will  help  you  greatly  in  retaining  their  meaning  in  your 
memory. 

There  are  many  books  designed  to  help  teachers,  but 
from  which  the  country  teacher  can  obtain  but  little 
practical  knowledge.  I  can  call  to  mind  about  twenty 
different   works   on    teaching   and   school    management, 

which  I  have  read  or  examined,  ami  among  the  numl 
I  could  recommend  but  two  or  three  which  would  be  ot 
great  benefit  to  a  country  teacher.      Of  course,  there  is 

much  in  them  that  is  valuable,  but  scattered  through  so 
much  that  is  merely  theoretical  anil  impracticable  that  it 
would  not  pay  the  outlay.  I  would  advise,  of  course, 
that  you  purchase  Works  On    education    and    read    them. 


206  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

but  beware  of  buying  too  many  books  at  one  time.  It 
would  be  a  good  rule  never  to  buy  a  new  book  until 
you  have  read  the  last  one  thoroughly.  There  is  one 
book,  however,  I  must  recommend  to  every  teacher. 
Though  old  and  though  written  for  students,  yet  as  the 
truth  it  contains  will  never  grow  old,  and  as  the  teacher 
should  be  always  a  student,  I  can  recommend  it  as  next 
in  importance  to  the  Unabridged  Dictionary.  It  is  the 
Student's  Manual,  by  Rev.  John  Todd,  D.  D.,  a  work, 
though  small,  containing  more  sensible  advice  than  any 
work  I  can  call  to  mind. 

One  text-book,  at  least,  on  each  of  the  following  sci- 
ences will  gradually  find  its  way  into  your  library.  Phys- 
ics, Chemistry,  Botany,  Zoology,  Physiology,  and  Ge- 
ology. The  ordinary  text-books  designed  for  schools, 
will  answer  your  purpose  at  first.  If  you  have  a  class 
in  Physiology  it  will  be  of  advantage  to  you  to  procure 
some  larger  treatise  than  the  ordinary  text-book.  A 
good  work  on  Composition  and  Rhetoric  will  be  valua- 
ble. A  history  of  the  U.  S.  larger  than  those  designed 
for  schools,  and  an  outline  of  universal  history,  will  be 
valuable  aids  in  teaching  this  branch  and  for  self-improve- 
ment. 

There  are  four  books  I  would  like  to  name  here 
which  the  teacher  may  procure  when  he  gets  able,  and 
which  he  will  find  valuable  as  bearing'  more  or  less  di- 
rectly  upon  his  profession.  I  will  name  them  in  the 
order  in  which  he  should  obtain  and  read  them.  Her- 
bert Spencer's  Essay  on  Education;  Deterioration  and 
Race  Education,  Royce;  Educational  Reformers,  Quick; 
Scientific  Basis  of  Education,  Hecker.  These  four 
volumes  will  give  him  a  pretty  thorough    knowledge 


in  a iuntry  a  no. ils.  207 

of  the  science  of  education,  and  they  arc  standard 
and  valuable  works,  deserving  a  place  in  every  schol- 
ar s  library,  whatever  profession  he  may  follow.  They 
arc  to  be  studied,  not  merely  read  and  laid  aside. 

If  the  teacher  wishes  to  dip  into  science,  he  will  find 
a  mine  of  treasures  in  the  International  Series  of  Scien- 
tific books,  published  by  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 
I  would  advise  the  teacher  to  procure  the  catalogues  of 
the  leading  publishing  houses  and  read  the  notices  of 
new  books,  which  are  continually  appearing.  By  keep- 
ing posted  as  to  what  the  world  of  authors  is  doing, 
vou  will  be  able  to  select  good  books  only,  and  buying 
them  as  vou  are  able,  you  will,  in  time,  build  up  a  library 
of  great  value  to  you  in  whatever  profession  you  may 
finallv  choose. 

I  would  just  say  here  that  there  are  several  books  an- 
miallv  published  by  the  U.  S.  government,  and  designed 
for  the  improvement  of  those  who  are  interested  in  the 
respective  subjects.  Among  those  I  would  recommend 
to  teachers,  are  the  Reports  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute, 
to  be  obtained  of  tin-  Secretary  of  the  Institution;  the 
Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  to  be  obtain- 
ed of  the  Commissioner  of  Education.  If  these  parties 
are  addressed  at  Washington.  D.  C,  by  letter,  stating 
plainly  the  book  wanted  and  the  year  issued,  they  will 
be  sent  gratis  These  works  are  frequently  distributed 
by  members  of  Congress  to  particular  friends,  often  for 
political  purposes,  and  thus  do  not  reach  the  parties  who 
would  make  good  use  of  them.  The  teacher  needs  tl 
works,  and  the  government  designs  that  such  parties 
should  have  them.  It  should  be  remembered  that  they 
are  always  issued  a  vear  or  more   after  the   year    for 


208  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

which  they  are  the  report.  For  example,  the  report  for 
1877  will  be  had  sometime  during  the  first  of  the  year 
1879,  or  latter  part  of  1878. 

By  economy,  by  abstaining  from  habits  such  as 
chewing  and  smoking,  any  young  man,  can,  in  a  few 
years,  save  enough  to  procure  a  good  libraiy.  If  all  the 
money  which  is  spent  by  young  men  from  the  time  they 
are  sixteen  years  of  age  until  they  are  twenty-five  to 
gratify  their  appetites  and  morbid  tastes,  was  saved  and 
invested  in  good  books,  they  would  have  a  library,  of 
which  any  man  of  intellectual  taste  might  well  be  proud. 
Never  say,  then,  that  you  are  too  poor  to  buy  books  so 
long  as  you  indulge  in  expensive  habits. 

A  good  book  is  a  treasure  and  does  not  even  get  old. 
Says  Milton,  "  A  good  book  is  the  precious  life-blood  of 
a  master  spirit,  embalmed  and  treasured  up  for  a  life  to 
come."  Commence  then,  young  teacher,  to  build  a  li- 
brary. Commence  with  one  book  and  add  to  it  as  your 
means  will  allow,  and  you  will,  in  a  few  years,  be  sur- 
prised at  the  result,  and  if  you  make  judicious  selections 
and  good  use  of  your  books,  you  will  also  have  a  library 
in  your  head. 

Borrow  all  the  books  you  can  if  they  are  such  as  you 
think  will  profit  you  to  read.  If  you  take  good  care  of 
books,  and  are  prompt  to  return  them,  you  can  always 
borrow. 

7.  Exercise  Tour  Pen.  Lord  Bacon  said,  "Reading 
maketh  a  full  man,  writing  an  exact  man."  If  you 
would  profit  by  what  you  read  and  think,  write  your 
thoughts  down.  It  is  a  good  habit  always  to  read  with 
a  pen  or  pencil  in  hand.  Many  an  idea  is  lost  because 
not  written  down.     The  mind  receives  ideas  one  after 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  209 

anothei  and  cannot  retain  them  all,  although  each  mak 
its  impression.  They  will  make  a  double  impression  by 
the  act  of  writing  them,  and  at  the  same  time  be  pre- 
served for  future  rehearsal  when  the  mind  has  forgotten 
the  form  in  which  they  came,  besides,  by  writing  vou 
are  improving  yourself  in  the  power  of  expression,  vou 
are  cultivating  language.  Take  notes  of  your  reading 
and  write  down  any  ideas  which  your  reading  may  sug- 
gest.  ^ 

Write  essays  on  easy  subjects,  even  though  no  one 
else  ever  sees  them.  Your  first  efforts  will  be  of  little 
benefit  to  an}-  one  but  yourself,  but  the}'  will  be  of  great 
benefit  to  you.  Lay  them  aside  for  a  year  and  then 
take  them  up  and  read  them  critically.  You  will  find 
many  errors,  and  see  where  you  could  make  great  im- 
provements. Re  the  local  reporter  of  vonr  neighbor- 
hood. Write  for  your  county  paper.  Local  editors  are 
always  anxious  to  have  a  correspondent  in  each  village 
or  township.  The  teacher  is  eminentlv  fitted  to  fill  that 
position,  and  the  exercise  will  be  of  great  benefit  to  him. 
ir  thus  commencing  on  a  small  scale,  vou  will,  by  and 
by,  be  able  to  write  for  educational  journals,  for  maga- 
zines, &c  I  advise  you  thus  to  exercise  vour  pen  con- 
tinually for  your  own  improvement,  and  when  vou  have 
improved  yourself  to  a  certain  extent,  your  pen  will  en- 
lighten others,  and  thus  you  will  become  an  educator 
well  as  a  learner.  Who  knows  what  future  Greele 
may  come  from  among  the  countrv  school  teachct    . 

8.     Recife  for  Blackboard.     The  teacher    may    find 

school-room-  as   I   have  found  them,  without  sufficient 

blackboard.      A  good   blackboard    may    be    made    for 

about  fifty  cents-not  more  than  that.     I  cannot  tell  where 

14 


210  METHODS    OF  TEACHING 

this  recipe  came  from,  but  I  have  used  it  in  several  school- 
houses.. 

Take  equal  parts  of  lamp  black  and  flower  of  emory, 
and  thin  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  benzine  and 
Japan  varnish.  Apply  two  coats  to  any  smooth  plas- 
tered wall. 

Where  boards  of  education  will  not  furnish  plenty  of 
blackboard  the  teacher  may  make  them  ashamed  of 
themselves  for  half  a  dollar. 

9.  Teaching  Penmanship,  I  have  ommitted  saying 
anything  about  teaching  penmanship  in  former  chapters. 
A  word  about  it  here  will  not  be  out  of  place.  The 
writing  lesson  should  come  near  the  close  of  the  day,  and 
not  immediately  after  play  hour,  for  the  reason  that  pupils 
are  tired  of  study,  and  writing  is  a  kind  of  rest  from 
more  active  mental  work,  and  after  pupils  have  been  at 
their  seats  awhile  their  muscles  and  nerves  have  be- 
come quieted. 

If  the  teacher  has  not  charts  to  illustrate  the  principles 
of  Penmanship,  he  should  procure  a  colored  crayon,  and 
draw  on  the  plastered  wall  a  diagram  illustrating  all  the 
principles,  and  a  copy  of  all  the  letters  made  according 
to  system  just  as  they  are  in  the  charts  or  copper-plate 
copv-books.  He  should  insist  on  all  the  pupils  having 
Spencerian  copy-books,  or  some  other  similar  kind,  The 
practice  of  writing  copies  should  no  longer  hold.  The 
teacher  will,  however,  be  obliged  to  fight  against  the 
combined  opposition  of  parents  and  pupils  in  some  dis- 
tricts. 

The  forms  and  principles  of  the  letters  should  be  stud- 
ied. The  pupil  should  not  be  allowed  simply  to  copy 
the  letter,  but  should  study  it  until  he  has  an  ideal  of  it 


I\    C(  'I   Nl'KV    SCH<  M  (Lfi  2]  I 

in  his  mind,  and  then  with  his  eyes  fixed  upon  his  pen, 
attempt  to  reproduce  the  ideal  <>n  paper.  The  old  way- 
was  to  fix  one  eye  on  the  pen  and  the  other  on  the  copy* 
and  try  to  imitate  it, or  if  such  an  ocular  feat  was  im- 
possible, the  eyes  were  alternately  fixed  on  the  copy  and 
on  the  pen.  When  a  letter  is  formed  by  the  pupil,  it 
should  be  compared  with  the  copy  and  the  defects  point- 
ed out.  As  a  drill  for  the  class, the  teacher  may  make 
certain  letters  on  the  black-board,  showing  the  different 
faults  of  the  pupils,  and  ask  them  to  point  out  the  faults, 
Main-  other  exercises  will  readily  suggest  themselves 
to  the  thinking  teacher. 

Pens,  ink,  and  copy-books  should  never  be  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  pupils'  desks.  Thev  should  be  collected 
at  the  close  of  the  writing  exercise,  and  distributed  again 
when  needed.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  take  a 
pride  in  keeping  their  eopy-books  clean  and  neat. 

10.  The  Teacher's  Highest  Reward.  The  compen- 
sation paid  teachers  for  their  services  is  small  in  com- 
parison with  the  rewards  of  those  who  follow  other  pro- 
Moris.  The  wages  of  the  best  paid  teachers  are  ex- 
tremely low  compared  with  the  income  of  a  first-class 
lawyer  or  physician.  Some-  preachers  also  get  large 
salaries.  But  professional  men  generally  do  not  make 
fortunes.     The  great  fortunes  are  nearly  always  made 

by  merchants,  or  what  are  called  business  men.  If  your 
highest  aim,  young  man.  is  to  get  rich,  to  amass  a  CO- 
lossal  fortune,  do  not  enter  a  profession.   But  professional 

men   see   pleasure   in   the   pursuit    of    something    beside 

wealth.    The  highest  pleasures  flow  from  the  action  of 

the   intellect.      An     \.  .  who  said  he  had  no  time  to 


212  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

make  money  enjoyed  existence,  I  venture  to  assert,  much 
more  than  a  Vanderbilt  or  an  Astor. 

The  teacher  who  finds  not  pleasure  in  the  pursuit  of 
his  profession,  or  in  the  action  of  his  intellect,  would  better 
quit  the  profession  at  once,  and  engage  in  some  other 
pursuit.  But  there  are  times  when  the  best  of  teachers 
feel  discouraged.  There  are  times  when  their  labors 
seem  in  vain.  They  have  labored  patiently  day  in  and 
day  out,  and  their  work  seems  like  the  labors  of  Sisy- 
phus, who  was  doomed  to  roll  a  stone  to  the  top  of  a 
hill,  and  in  spite  of  all  his  efforts  it  continually  returned 
upon  him.  But  remember,  teacher,  that  your  work  is 
sometimes  like  bread  cast  upon  the  waters,  to  bear  fruit 
after  many  days.  When  such  thoughts  come  over  you 
read  the  following  poem  which  is  such  an  excellent  piece 
of  composition,  and  so  aptly  hits  the  point,  that  I  can- 
not refrain  from  quoting  it  entire.  It  is  from  the  pen 
of  W.  H.  Venable,  author  of  a  school  history  of  the 
United  States,  and  other  educational  works,  distinguish- 
ed alike  as  an  educator,  author,  and  poet: 

THE    TEACHER'S    DREAM. 


The  weary  teacher  sat  alone 
While  twilight  gathered  on ; 

And  not  a  sound  was  heard  around, 
The  boys  and  girls  were  gone. 

The  weary  teacher  sat  alone, 
Unnerved  and  pale  was  he; 

Bowed  'neath  a  yoke  of  care,  he  spoke 
In  sad  soliloquy: 

"Another  round,  another  round 
Of  labor  thrown  away, — 
Another  chain  of  toil  and  pain 
Dragged  through  a  tedious  day. 


in  cm'NTKV  schools.  213 

"Of  no  avail  is  constant  zeal, 

Love's  sacrifice  is  loss, 
The  hopes  of  morn,  so  golden,  turn, 

Bach  evening,  into  dross. 

"I  squander  on  a  barren  field, 

My  strength,  my  life,  my  all; 

The  seeds  I  sew  will  never  grow, 

They  perish  where  they  fall." 

lie  Bighed,  and  low  upon  his  hand* 
1  li-  aching  brow  he  pn 

And  o'er  his  frame,  erelong  there  came 
A  soothing  sense  of  rest. 

And  then  he  lifted  up  his  face, 

Hut  started  back  aghast, — 
The  room  by  strange  tmd  sudden  change 

Assumed  proportions  vast. 

It  seemed  a  Senate  hall,  and  one 

Addressed  .1  listening  throng; 
Each  burning  word  all  Im-mns  stirred, 

Applause  rose  loud  and  long. 

The  'wildered  teacher  thought  he  knew 
The  speaker's  voice  and  look, 

•'And  for  his  name,"  said  he,  "  the  same 
N  in  my  record  book." 

The  staterj    Senate  hall  dissolved, 

A  church  rose  in  its  place, 
Wherein  there  stood  a  man  of  God, 

Dispensing  words  of  grace. 

And  though  he  spoke  in   Bolemn  tone, 
Anil  though  his  hair  was  gray, 

The  teacher's  thought  was  strangely  wrought: 
'•I  whipped  that  i>o\  to-day." 

The  church,  a  phantasm,  vanished  soon; 

What  saw  the  teacher  then? 
In  <  i  alcoved  room. 

An  author  plied  his  pen. 


214:  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

My  idlest  lad!"  the  teacher  said, 
Filled  with  new  surprise — 
"Shall  I  behold  his  name  enrolled 
Among  the  great  and  wise?" 

The  vision  of  a  cottage  home 

The  teacher  now  descried; 
A  mother's  face  illumed  the  place 

Her  influence  sanctified. 

"A  miracle!  a  miracle! 

This  matron,  Avell  I  know, 
Was  but  a  wild  and  careless  child, 
Not  half  an  hour  ago. 

•And  when  she  to  her  children  speaks 

Of  duty's  golden  rule, 
Her  lips  repeat,  in.  accents  sweet, 

My  words  to  her  at  school." 

The  scene  was  changed  again,  and  lo, 

The  school-house  rude  and  old, 
Upon  the  wall  did  darkness  fall, 

The  evening  air  was  cold. 

"A  dream !"  the  sleeper,  waking,  said, 
Then  paced  along  the  floor, 
And,  whistling  slow  and  soft  and  low, 
He  locked  the  school-house  door. 

And  walking  home,  his  heart  was  full 

Of  peace  and  trust  and  love  and  praise; 
And  singing  slow  and  soft  and  low, 
'  He  murmured,  "  After  many  days." 

There  are  many  other  things  I  might  suggest  to  the 
teacher,  but  as  they  are  so  admirably  illustrated  in  the 
little  book  already  mentioned,  viz:  Todd's  Student's 
Manual,  I  will  advise  the  teacher  to  procure  a  copy  at 
once  rather  than  I  should  iterate  what  has  been  so  much 
better  said.  There  is  one  matter,  however,  which  I  hope 
to  be  pardoned  for  mentioning  as  a  closing  piece  of  advice 


IX  COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  216 

to  the  teacher.  It  is  a  delicate  matter  and  I  wish  to 
handle  it  carefully.  Let  me  whisper  it  in  your  car.  If 
you  are  not  already  mated  for  life,  and  have  a  home 
which  is  dearer  to  you  than  all  else  beside,  I  advise  you 
to  seek  out  a  congenial  spirit,  who  will  share  your  joys 
and  sympathize  with  you  in  your  difficulties, and  be  in  all 
things  a  helpmeet  and  adviser  through  life.  I  hope  to  see 
the  day  in  this  country,  when  the  country  school-house 
shall  have  within  a  stone's  throw,  a  cottage  and  an  acre 
or  two  of  ground  to  be  let  to  the  teacher  who  will  make 
it  his  home,  where  he  can  cultivate  the  soil  for  his  partial 
sustenance,  and  where  he  can  have  the  needful  exer- 
cise for  his  muscles,  and  an  opportunity  to  gratify  his 
taste  in  growing  flowers  and  fruits.  I  might  grow  po- 
etical here,  but  there  is  no  need  of  it.  This  is  intended 
as  a  practical  work  and  I  will  leave  others  the  task  of 
furnishing  the  dessert  of  the  teacher's  table.  I  have  only 
attempted  to  furnish  some  wholesome  bread  and  meat 
for  the  tyro  teacher,  and  how  well  I  have  executed  my 
task,  1  leave  the  reader  to  judge. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


HINTS    AND    HELPS    FOR   THE    TEACHER. 

Gen.  Sheridan  wrote  to  Gen.  Grant,  "  Things  are  in 
a  shape  to  push."  Grant  replied,  "  Push  things."  Let 
me  say  to  you,  teacher,  country  teacher  though  you  are, 
Push  tilings.  Though  you  may  have  the  dingiest  log 
school-house,  among  the  rudest  of  back-woods-men,  for 
your  theater  of  operations,  let  me  repeat  to  you,  Push 
things.  If  things  are  not  in  a  shape  to  push,  put  them 
in  a  shape  to  push,  and  then  push.  You  must  have 
push,  vim,  energy,  call  it  what  you  will,  you  must  have 
that  which  zvill  make  things  go  if  you  would  succeed. 

Read  the  following  extracts  from  some  of  the  leading 
thinkers  and  educators  of  the  world.  You  may  gather 
inspiration  from  them  and  be  prompted  to  take  renewed 
interest  in  your  work: 

Ideas  make  their  way  in  silence  like  the  waters  that, 
filtering  behind  the  rocks  of  the  Alps,  loosen  them  from 
the  mountains  on  which  they  rest. — ZP  Aubigne. 

In  the  end  thought  rules  the  world.  There  are  times 
when  impulses  and    passions  are  more  powerful,  but 

(2«S) 


I.N    COUNTRY     SCHOOLS.  217 

they  soon  expend  themselves;  while  ;/»W,  acting  con- 
stantly, is  ever  ready  to  drive  them  back  and  work 
when  their  energy  is  exhausted.     McCosh. 

I  do  not  think  that  it  is  the  mission  of  this  age,  or  of 
any  other  age,  to  lay  down  a  system  of  education  which 
shall  hold  good  for  all  ages.  Let  us  never  forget  that 
the  present  century  has  just  as  good  a  right  to  its  forms 
of  thought  and  methods  of  culture  as  any  former  cen- 
turies had  to  theirs,  and  thatjthe  same  resources  of 
power  are  open  to  us  to-day  as  were  ever  open  to- 
humanity  in  any  age  of  the  world. —  Tyndall. 

The  profession  of  the  teacher  can  not  be  too  highly 
estimated.  It  demands,  for  its  highest  success  and  use- 
fulness, a  special  knowledge  and  training  beyond  the 
scope  of  the  common  learning  and  methodical  discipline 
which  it  labors  to  impart.  The  teacher  should  know 
the  Human  Mind,  and  the  bodily  conditions  upon  which 
Mind  depends. — Hecker. 

People  do  not  understand  childhood.  With  the  false 
notions  we  have  of  it  the  further  we  go  the  more  we 
blunder.  The  wisest  apply  themselves  to  what  it  is 
important  to  men  to  know,  without  considering  what 
children  are  in  a  condition  to  learn.  Thev  are  always 
seeking  the  man  in  the  child,  without  reflecting  what  he 
is  before  ho  can  be  a  man.  This  is  the  Study  to  which 
I  have  applied  myself  most:  so  that,  should  my  practi- 
cal scheme  be  found  useless  and  chimerical,  my  obser- 
vation will  always  turn  to  account.  I  may  possibly 
have  taken  a  very  bad  view  of  what  ought  to  bo  done, 
but  I  conceive   I   have   taken   a  good  one  of  the  subject 

to  be  wrought  upon.      Begin,  then,  by  studying  your 


218  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

pupils  better;  for  most  assuredly  you  do  not  at  present 
understand  them. — Rousseau. 

The  object  of  education,  is  to  promote  the  normal 
growth  of  a  human  being,  developing  all  his  powers 
systematically  and  symmetrically,  so  as  to  give  the 
greatest  possible  capability  in  thought  and  action. — 
Prof.  James  Johounot. 

Education  must  put  the  child  to  work ;  for  by  work 
man  is  perfected.  And  what  he  does  not  achieve,  he 
never  comprehends;  and,  hence,  the  barrenness  of  the 
word  learning  of  the  schools.  It  profits  but  little  the 
individual,  and  none  at  all  the  race  or  nation. — Samuel 
JRoyce. 

I  discard  as  selfish  in  the  extreme,  that  narrow  prin- 
ciple, which  would  look  down  upon  any  branch  of  hu- 
man knowledge  as  useless  or  improper,  however  widely 
they  may  differ  in  relative  value.  Some  topics  of  study 
seem  to  have  no  object  but  the  occupation  and  exercise, 
whether  salutary  or  not,  of  the  mental  faculties;  while 
others  do  not  assert  a  principle,  or  move  a  step  without 
•contributing  to  the  welfare  and  improvement  of  the  hu- 
man family. — E.  D.  Mansfield. 

The  school-master  is  one  of  the  chief  workmen,  I 
may  almost  say  the  principal  in  preparing  for  the 
genius  of  America,  in  the  bright  years  of  that  futurity, 
the  most  magnificent  edifice  that  the  mind  of  a  nation 
ever  inhabited.-^  Thomas  Smith  Grimhe. 

The  greatest  thing  a  human  soul  ever  does  in  this 
world  is  to  see  something,  and  tell  what  it  saw  in  a  plain 
way.  Hundreds  of  people  can  talk  for  one  who  can 
think,  but  thousands  can  think  for  one  who  can  see. 


I\    C(  >U1N  ik\     SCHCX  »LS.  219 

"To  see  clearly,  is  poetry,  prophecy  and  religion,  all  in 
one. — JRuskin. 

Man's  actions  here  are  of  infinite  moment  to  him,  and 

never  die  or  end  at  all.  Man,  with  his  little  life,  reaches 
upward  high  as  heaven— downward  low  as  hell;  and  in 
his  three-score-years  <>1  time  holds  an  eternity  fearfully 
and  wonderfully  hidden. —  Thomas  Carlyle. 

Oh,  how  hard  it  is  to  die.  and  not  be  able  to  leave  the 
world  any  better  for  one's  little  life  in  it! — Abraham 
Lincoln. 

The  great  secret  of  success  in  life  is  for  a  man  to  be 
ready  when  his  opportunity  comes. — Disraeli. 

There  is  no  credit  in  knowing  how  to  spell,  but  posi- 
tive disgrace  in  being  ignorant  on  that  point.  So  there 
can  be  no  credit  in  doing  right,  while  it  is  infamous  to 
<lo  wrong. — Gcon>r  Francis  Train. 

( lensure  and  criticism  never  hurt  anybody.  If  false, 
they  can't  hurt  you  unless  you  are  wanting  in  manly 
character;  and  if  true,  they  show  a  man  his  weak  points 
and  forewarn  him  against  failure  and  trouble. —  Glud- 
stone. 

Tin-  child,  through  stumbling,  learns  to  walk  erect. 
Every  fall  is  upward. —  Theodore  Parker. 

Old  truths  an-  always  new   to  us   if  they   come    with 

the  smell  of  heaven  upon  them. —  Ifolm  Bunyan. 

Be  a  bold,  brave,  true,  honest  man.     If  you  know  a 

thing  is  right,  do  it.  If  you  have  a  solemn  conviction, 
dare-   to   utter   it   in    tin-   fear   of  God,   regardless   of   the 

wrath  of  man.     ybhn  />.  (rough. 

There  is  no  temptation  so  great  as  not  to  be  templed 
at  all.     Hannah  More. 

It  is  a    principle   of   war.  that    when    von   can   use   the 


220  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

thunder-bolt  you  must  prefer  it  to  the  cannon.     Earnest- 
ness is  the  thunder-bolt. — JYafioleon. 

If  I  take  care  of  my  character  my  reputation  will  take 
care  of  itself. — Moody. 

I  would  rather  be  right  than  be  President. — Henry- 
Clay. 

An  instructed  democracy  is  the  surest  foundation  of 
Government,  and  education  and  freedom  are  the  only 
sources  of  true  greatness  and  true  happiness  among  any 
people. —  yohn  Bright. 

The  doorstep  to  the  temple  of  wisdom  is  a  knowledge 
of  our  own  ignorance. — Sturgeon. 

Let  the  soldier  be  abroad  if  he  will,  he  can  do  noth- 
ing in  this  age.  There  is  another  personage,  a  person- 
age less  imposing  in  the  eyes  of  some,  perhaps  insignifi- 
cant. The  school-master  is  abroad,  and  I  trust  to  him, 
armed  with  his  primer  against  the  soldier  in  full  military 
array. — Lord  Brougham. 

Let  every  man  be  occupied,  and  occupied  in  the  high- 
est employment  of  which  his  nature  is  capable,  and  die 
with  the  consciousness  that  he  has  done  his  best. — 
Sidney  Smith. 

But  under  whose  care  soever  a  child  is  put  to  be 
taught,  during  the  tender  and  flexible  years  of  his  life, 
this  is  certain,  it  should  be  one  who  thinks  Latin  and 
language  the  least  part  of  education ;  one,  who  knowing 
how  much  virtue,  and  a  well  tempered  soul,  is  to  be 
preferred  to  any  sort  of  learning  or  language,  makes  it 
his  chief  business  to  form  the  mind  of  his  scholars,  and 
give  that  a  right  disposition :  which,  if  once  got,  though 
all  the  rest  should  be  neglected,  would,  in  due  time,  pro- 
duce all  the  rest;  and  which  if  it  be  not  got,  and  settled, 


IN    CO!    NTKV    SCHOOLS. 


22 1 


so  as  to  keep  out  ill  and  vicious  habits,  languages  and 
sciences,  and  all  other  accomplishments  of  education, 
will  be  to  no  purpose,  but  to  make  the  worse  a  more 
dangerous  man. —  John  Locke — i6go. 

In  our  country   and   in   our   times,  no   man    is   worthy 

the  honored  name  of  a  statesman  who  does  not  include 
the  highest  practicable  education  of  the  people  in  all 

his  plans  of  administration. — Horace  Mann. 

The  teacher  should  permit  his  pupil  himself  to  taste 
and  relish  things,  and  of  himself  to  choose  and  discern 
them,  sometimes  opening  the  way  to  him,  and  some- 
times making  him  break  the  iee  himself;  that  is,  I  would 
not  have  the  teacher  alone  to  invent  and  speak,  but  that 
he  should  also  hear  his  pupils  speak.  Socrates,  and 
since  him  Arcesilaus,  made  first  their  scholars  speak, 
and  then  spoke  to  them. — Montaigne. —  Written  in  the 
age  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

There'  is  a  most  remarkable  reciprocal  action  between 
the  interest  which  the  teacher  takes  and  that  which  he 
communicates  to  his  pupils.  If  he  is  not  with  his  whole 
mind  present  at  the  subject,  if  he  does  not  care  whether 
he  is  understood  or  not,  whether  his  manner  is  liked  or 
not,  he  will  alienate  the  affections  of  his  pupils,  and 
render  them  indifferent  to  what  he  says.  But  real  inter- 
est taken  in  the  task  of  instruction — kind  words  and 
kinder  feelings — the  very  expression  of  the  features,  and 
the  glance  of  the  eye,  are  never  lost  upon  children.  — / 
Pestaloi. :/. 

Intelligence  and  virtue  are  tin-  foundation  and  tin-  cor- 
ner stone  of  the  American  Republic.     Hence, it  follows 

that  ignorance  and  wrong  .ire  its  most   formidable   foes. 
Its    theory    is    that    every    citizen    must    be    intelligent 


222  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

enough  clearly  to  comprehend,  and  virtuous  enough 
faithfully  to  discharge  his  duties. — Prof.  Wm.  jF\ 
Phelp. 

All  who  consider  the  subject  must  admit  that  the 
teacher  is  called  to  labor  in  a  field  of  vast  influence. 
This  the  teacher  should  understand,  and,  though  he  may 
at  times  feel  almost  crushed  by  the  weight  of  his  respon- 
sibilities, and  be  induced  to  exclaim,  "  Who  is  sufficient 
for  these  things?"  yet  let  him  persevere,  trusting  in 
Him  from  whom  cometh  all  needed  assistance,  ever 
aiming  at  a  nearer  approximation  to  the  mark  of  per- 
fection, ever  striving  to  remove  defects  and  cultivate 
excellences. — Northend. 

In  the  name  of  the  living  God  it  must  be  proclaimed, 
that  licentiousness  shall  be  the  liberty — violence  and 
chicanery  shall  be  the  law — superstition  and  craft  shall 
be  the  religion — and  the  self-destructive  indulgence  of 
all  sensual  and  unhallowed  passions,  shall  be  the  only 
happiness  of  that  people  who  neglect  the  education  of 
their  children. — Hon.  Newton  Bateman. 

To  teach,  whether  by  word  or  action,  is  the  greatest 
function  on  earth. — Charming. 

We  want  men  of  original  perception  and  original  act- 
ion, who  can  open  their  eyes  wider  than  to  a  nationality, 
— namely,  to  considerations  of  benefit  to  the  human 
race, — can  act  in  the  interest  of  civilization;  men  of 
classic,  men  of  moral  mind,  who  can  live  in  the  moment 
and  take  a  step  forward.  Columbus  was  no  backward 
creeping  crab,  nor  was  Martin  Luther,  nor  John  Adams, 
nor  Patrick  Henry,  nor  Thomas  Jefferson;  and  the 
Genius  or  Destiny  of  America  is  no  log  or  sluggard, 
but  a  man  incessantly  advancing,  as  the  shadow  on  the 


IN    COUNTRY    sc >LS.  228 

dial's  face,  or  the  heavenly  body  by  whose  light  it  is 
marked. — Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 
Some  teachers  have  Learned  how  to  read  mind,  to 

understand  a  class  of  pupils  in  a  single  day's  observa- 
tion. Some  have  learned  how  to  encourage  one  and 
guide  another,  how  to  control  each  one  according  to  his 
peculiarities.  The  teacher  who  knows  this,  as  the  mu- 
sician knows  how  to  bring  out  harmonies  from  the  in- 
Strument,  is  the  one  who  can  teach  easily  and  success- 
fully, and  proves  to  be  the  true  teacher.  Teachers 
should  learn,  then,  how  to  read  character,  how  to  read 
the  dispositions  of  each  pupil,  and  how,  therefore,  to 
manipulate  each  one  in  the  best  manner  to  secure  the 
highest  success. — Nelson  Sizer. 

If  we  work  upon  marble,  it  will  perish.  If  we  work 
upon  brass,  time  will  efface  it.  If  we  rear  temples,  they 
will  crumble  into  dust.  But  if  we  work  upon  immortal 
minds — if  we  imbue  them  with  high  principles — with 
the  fusl  fear  of  God  and  of  their  fellow  men. — we  en- 
ive  upon  those  tablets  something  which  no  time  can 
efface,  but  which  will  brighten  to  all  eternity. — Daniel 
Webster. 

It  requires  more  care  and  attention,  more  experience 
and  sagacity,  and  a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  principles  of  human  nature,  to  direct  the  opening 
intellect  in  i/s  first  excursions  in  the  path  of  knowledge, 
than  to  impart  to  it  instructions  respecting  any  particu- 
lar science  in  after  life.   -Thomas  Dick. 

the  earnestness  of  truth  and  sincerity,  tin-  glit- 
tering charms  of   wordy  eloquence,  or  tl-,e  seductive 
imagery  of  unhallowed  genius,  sink  into  insignificant 
— Mrs.  Lincoln  Phelps. 


224  METHODS    OF   TEACHING 

The  end  of  education  is  the  power  or  art  of  thinking. 
This  power  is  acquired,  but  never  inborn.  It  is  always 
the  price  of  long-continued  and  patient  study.  Talents 
though  "  angel  bright,"  and  even  genius,  need  culture, 
to  be  educated,  as  really  as  the  most  ordinary  intellects. 
The  mere  absorption  of  knowledge,  as  the  sponge  ab- 
sorbs water,  gives  no  discipline;  and  hence  the  acquir- 
ing of  knowledge  is  not  the  object  to  be  gained,  but 
the  development  of  mental  power. —  Orcutt. 

A  believer  in  the  doctrine  "the  physician  born  not 
made,"  (a  motto  on  a  par  with  "  the  teacher  born,  not 
made),"  once  said  to  a  distinguished  oculist,  who  was 
advocating  the  necessity  of  thorough  training  in  his  pro- 
fession: "Why,  doctor,  you  have  attained  the  highest 
skill  without  such  aid."  The  oculist  replied,  "But  I 
spoiled  a  bushel  of  eyes  in  acquiring  the  art,  and  now  I 
can  teach  others  to  avoid  my  blunders."  Contrasts 
most  marked  I  often  witness  in  schools  similar  in  other 
conditions,  except  that  an  expert  teaches  the  one,  and  a 
novice  experiments  in  the  other.  In  the  one  you  see 
order,  interest,  activity,  cheerfulness,  and  joy  of  consci- 
ous progress;  in  the  other,  confusion,  whispering  and 
mischief,  or  listlessness,  indolence,  and  dislike  of  study. 
—B.  G.  Northrop. 

"W  isdom  is  the  principal  thing ;  therefore  get  wisdom ; 
and  with  all  thy  getting  get  understanding. — Solomon. 

Education  is  intended  to  enlighten  the  intellect,  to 
train  it  and  the  moral  sentiments  to  vigor,  and  to  repress 
the  too  great  activity  of  the  selfish  feelings.  But  how 
can  this  be  successfully  accomplished,  when  the  facul- 
ties and  sentiments  themselves,  the  laws  to  which  they 
are  subjected,  and  their  relations  to  external  objects,  are 


IN    COINTRV    SCHOOLS.  225 

unascertained?  Accordingly,  the  theories  and  practices 
observed  in  education  are  innumerable  and  contradict- 
or} ;  which  could  not  happen  if  men  knew  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  object  which  they  were  training. —  Geo. 
(  'omde. 

Nothing  is  comprehended  so  fully  and  distinctly,  noth- 
ing retained  so  firmly,  as  that  which  we  find  ourselves. 
— Kant. 

Each  <>ik-  of  us  has  in  himself  his  ideal  prize  man — 
that  is,  the  harmonious  maximum  of  all  his  individual 
predispositions;  and  it  is  the  business  of  education  to 
develop  him  into  full  growth. —  Richtcr. 

The  educator  must  adapt  himself  to  the  pupil,  but  not 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  imply  that  the  pupil  is  incapable 
of  change,  and  he  must  also  be  sure  that  the  pupil  shall 
learn  through  his  experience  the  independence  of  the 
object  studied,  which  remains  uninfluenced  by  his  vari- 
able personal  moods,  ami  the  adaptation  on  the  teacher's 
part  must  never  compromise  this  independence. — Rv<ai- 
kran  i . 

The  profession  of  pedagogy  is  the  latest  comer  among 
the  liberal  professions  of  this  country.  The  law,  theol- 
ogy, and  medicine,  are  already  crowded  so  with  partially 
and  well-educated  candidates,  that  the  people  are  able 
to  select  the  wheat  from  the  chaff  No  community  of 
any  considerable  pretension  is  now  compelled  to  I 

Up  with  a  pettifogger  for  its  lawyer,  a  quack  for  its  do.  - 

tor,  or  an  ignoranl  gospel  ranter  for  its  minister.  The 
objective  point  of  our  system  of  Normal  education  i^  to 
stimulate  the  preparation  of  teachers,  by  agencies,  pub- 
lic and  private,  popular  and  collegiate,  till  the  same 
-glut  in  the  market."  enables  the  school   committees   to 

L5 


220  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

go  into  the  field  and  choose  the  best  the  money  suppli- 
ed by  the  people  will  command. — Rev.  A.  D.  Mayo. 

The  faithful  and  competent  teacher  never  fails  to  se- 
cure the  confidence,  respect,  and  even  affection  of  his 
pupils.  He  is,  as  he  ought  to  be,  esteemed  "  in  place  of 
a  parent."  He  is  thought  to  be  infallible.  He  ought 
therefore,  to  be  correct.  He  is  esteemed  as  possessing 
the  whole  Cyclopaedia  of  knowledge.  He  ought,  there- 
fore, to  be  a  man  of  extensive  acquaintance  with  the 
principles  of  science.  He  is  thought  by  the  confiding 
pupil  to  be  incapable  of  any  measure,  or  even  intention 
at  variance  with  honest  views  of  promoting  the  best  in- 
terests of  those  entrusted  to  his  care.  And  he  ought 
accordingly,  to  enlist  all  his  energies  in  promoting  the 
solid  improvement  and  moral  growth  of  every  mind  sub- 
mitted to  his  influence. —  Win.  H.  McGnffcy. 

For  precept  must  be  upon  precept,  precept  upon  pre- 
cept; line  upon  line,  line  upon  line;  here  a  little,  and 
there  a  little. — Isaiah. 

Learning  is  but  an  adjunct  to  ourself. — Shakespeare. 

A  mother  tells  her  infant  that  two  and  two  make 
four,  the  child  is  able  to  count  four  for  all  the  purposes 
of  life,  till  the  course  of  his  education  brings  him  among 
philosophers,  who  fright  him  from  his  former  knowledge 
by  telling  him  that  four  is  a  certain  aggregate  of  units. 
— Samuel  Johnson. 

Books,  schools,  education,  are  the  scaffolding  by  means 
of  which  God  builds  up  the  human  soul. — Humboldt. 

Delightful  task!  to  rear  the  tender  thought, 

To  teach  the  young  idea  how  to  shoot. 

—  Thomson. 

What  is  defeat?     Nothing   but    education — nothing 


IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS.  -Jl'7 

but  the  first  step  to  something  better. —  Wendell  Pliill- 
ipps. 

Country  schools  nerd  the  very  best  teachers,  men  and 
women  of  broad  views  and  culture,  of  experience  and 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  men  and  women  fitted  to 
be  leaders  in  these  little  communities.  I  know  of  no 
position  of  more  influence  than  that  of  a  teacher  in  a 
country  district  where  a  healthy  public  sentiment  pre- 
vails. If  possessed  <>f  any  qualifications  for  leadership, 
the  teacher  becomes  almost  inevitably,  a  Leader  of 
thought  and  opinion.  1  lis  influence  is  not  bounded  by 
the  school-room  walls,  but  extends  to  every  home  in  the 
district.  If  this  teacher  be  vain,  frivolous,  silly:  if  im- 
moral or  the  slave  of  filthy  habits,  from  that  school  will 
proceed  influences  that  will  curse  every  home  in  the 
district:  if  that  teacher  be  pure,  noble-minded,  strong- 
souled,  as  a  teacher  ought  to  be,  the  streams  flowing 
from  that  school  will  be  streams  of  blessing,  like  those 
"  which  make  glad  the  city  of  God." — Mary  Allen  West. 

Now,  I  believe  that  a  school,  in  order  to  be  a  good 
one,  should  be  one  that  will  tit  men  and  women,  in  the 
best  way,  for  the  humble  positions  that  the  great  mass 
of  them  must  necessarily  OCCUpy  in  life.  It  is  not  nec- 
ry  that  boys  and  girls  be  taught  any  less  than  they 
are  taught  now.  They  should  receive  more  practical 
knowledge  than  they  do  now.  without  a  doubt,  and  less 
of  that  which  is  simply  ornamental;  but  they  cannot 
know*  too  much.  I  do  not  can-  how  much  knowledge 
a  man  may  have  acquired  in  school,  that  school  has 
been  a  curse  to  him  if  its  influence  has  been  to  make 
him  unhappy  in  his  place,  and  to  till  him  with  futile  am- 
bitions.—  jf.   G.   Holland. 


228  METHODS   OF    TEACHING 

Knowledge  which  costs  nothing,  which  is  not  born 
of  the  travail  of  the  soul,  is  fleeting  and  unprofitable. 
Explain  a  point  to  a  class,  be  it  never  so  clearly;  impart 
information  even  of  the  most  interesting:  and  valuable 
character;  and,  if  it  be  not  fastened  in  the  mind  of  the 
pupil,  be  not  digested  and  assimilated  by  a  subsequent 
mental  operation,  it  will  soon  pass  away.  Gradgrind 
may  fill  the  little  pitchers  ranged  before  him  to  over- 
flowing, but  they  will  not  hold  water.  Here  is  the  great 
benefit  of  class-drill  and  reviews.  Thev  force  the  mind 
to  appropriate  knowledge,  and  so  retain  what  else  would 
be  suffered  to  escape. —  y.  Dorman  Steele. 

Do  not  seek  happiness  in  what  is  misnamed  pleasure. 
Seek  it  rather  in  wThat  is  termed  studv.  *  *  *  Learn 
to  make  a  right  use  of  your  eyes;  the  commonest  things 
are  worth  looking  at,  even  stones  and  weeds,  and  the 
most  familiar  animals.  Read  good  books,  not  forgetting 
the  best  of  all;  there  is  more  true  philosophy  in  the 
Bible  than  in  every  wrork  of  every  skeptic  that  ever 
wrote;  and  we  would  be  all  miserable  creatures  with- 
out it. — Hugh  Miller. 

He  who  wTould  teach  well  and  to  advantage,  must  not 
only  understand  the  subjects  which  he  is  to  teach;  he 
must  know  how  to  enable  it  to  grasp  the  mental  food 
offered;  and  he  must  be  able  to  put  that  food  into  such 
a  shape  that  it  may  be  grasped  by  the  learner. — Anna 
C.  Brackett. 

Beyond  his  judicious  preference  for  his  own  well-ap- 
proved, though  unpretending  weapons;  beyond  his 
modest,  but  self-respectful  reliance  upon  his  own  self- 
developed  powers;  beyond  his  prompt,  but  unostenta- 
tions  acceptance  of  the  duty  and  the  trial  providentially 


IN    COUNTRY    schools.  229 

imposed  upon  him;  beyond  that  imperturbable  coolness 
and  calmness  which  stamped  him  every  inch  a  man,  as 
well  as  a  hero; — beyond  all  this,  let  the  true  teac  her 
discover,  and  ponder  well,  that  lesson  of  simple  unwav- 
ering faith  in  a  divine  guidance  and  support,  which  he, 
in  his  conflicts  with  ignorance  and  insubordination, needs 
not  less  than  did  David  in  his  memorable  combat  with 
the  giant  of  Gath;  and  may  he,  in  his  time  of  need,  both 
seek  and  find  that  guidance  and  support,  and  through 
them,  come  off  conqueror  indeed. —  Jczccfl. 

The  human  mind  is  the  brightest  display  of  the  power 
.aid  skill  of  the  Infinite  Mind  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted. It  is  created  and  placed  in  this  world  to  be 
educated  for  a  higher  state  of  existence.  Here  its  fac- 
ulties begin  to  unfold,  and  those  mighty  energies,  which 
are  to  hear  it  forward  to  unending  ages,  begin  to  dis- 
cover themselves.  The  object  of  training  such  a  mind 
should  be,  to  enable  the  soul  to  fulfill  her  duties  well 
here,  to  stand  on  high  vantage-ground  when  she  leaves 
this  cradle  of  her  being,  for  an  eternal  existence  beyond 
the  grave. — Rev.  "fohn  Todd. 

Men  have  tried  many  things,  but  still  they  ask  for 
stimulant — the  stimulant  in  use  requires  the  use  of  more. 
Men  try  to  drown  the  Boating  dead  of  their  own  souls 
in  the  wine-cup,  but  the  corpses  will  rise.     We  see  their 

laces  in  the  bubbles.  The  intoxication  of  drink  sets  the 
world  whirling  again,  and  the  pulses  playing  musie,  ami 
the  thoughts  galloping,  but  the  fast  clock  runs  down 
sooner,  and  the  unnatural  stimulation  only  leaves  the 
house  it  tills  with  the  wildest  revelry  more  silent,  more 
sad.  more  deserted,  more   dead.      There  is  only  one 

stimulant    that    never   fails,  and    vet    never    intoxicates 


230  METHODS    OF    TEACHING 

Duty.  Duty  puts  a  blue  sky  over  every  man — up  in 
his  heart  may  be — into  which  the  sky-lark,  Happiness, 
always  goes  singing. — Geo.  D.  Prentice. 


INDEX. 


Agreeableness 

Architecture,  School 

Animal  Food 

Appetite  for  Fiction 

Authors 

Attractive,  Make  the  School-Room 

Automatons,  Teachers  as 

Advanced  ( reography 

Advanced  Arithmetic 

Advanced  Spelling 

Advanced  Reading 

Apparatus 

Alphabetic  Method 

Alphabet        .... 

Alphabet  Blocks 

Autocrat  of  the  School-room 

Application  tor  School 

Associations,  Teacher's 
V  tendan<  e,  [rregular 
Anatomy,  Physiology  and  Hygiene 
Acoustics 
Algebra        ... 

Attention.  I  Iabits  of 

Arithmetic  .... 


13-29 

55 
16 

21 

20 

203 

20O 

[I8-183 

99-ipS 

89 

8l 

62 

;r 
74 

46 

2o 

31 

I  I  I 

■  \9 
tS3 
155 

is 
99  ^5 


282  INDEX. 

Astronomy 

Accent  in  Reading 

Addition 

Articulation 

Abbreviations  . 

Addressing  Letters 

Analysis  . 

Benevolence 

"Big  Head"      . 

Bargains  with  Directors 

Bright  Pupils 

Black-board,  Necessity  of     . 

Black-board,  Recipe  for  Making 

Books  for  the  Teacher 

Blocks      ..... 

Boards  of  Education,  Secure  Aid 

Boards  of  Education,  Teachers  in 

Buildings       . 

Beginning,  Make  a  Good 

Business,  Show  that  you  Mean 

Bigoted  Teachers 

Biography,  Works  of 

Botany      ..... 

Brain,  Well-balanced 

Boarding  .... 

Bathing         . 

Borrow  Books 

Bones  . 

Bills,  Merchant's 

Beginners,  Teaching,  to  Read 

Capital  Letters,  Use  of 

Construction  of  School-houses 

Calisthenic  Exercises 

"Coming  Man" 

Contract  with  School  Boards 

Costume        . 

Coercive  Measures 

Collect  Specimens 


of 
struct 


73 


*55 

82 

100 

69~75 

89 

95 
112 

11 

29 

3° 

49 
61 

209-62 

205 

5o 

34 
57 
56 
35 
38 

13 

21 

22-160 

T3 

*5 

17 
208 

150 
107 

70 
55-61 

30 

25 
48 

22-159 


INDKX. 

233 

Cheating          ...... 

'71 

Companions.  Politeness  to           ... 

■77 

Circulation       ...... 

■5- 

Colds                  ....... 

"7 

Constitution  of  U.  S.  should  be  read  in  Classes            87 

Compass  ot  the  Voice          .... 

82 

Carbonic  Acid            ..... 

64 

Compound  \ umbers              .... 

105 

Cancellation              ..... 

109 

Convection            ...... 

'    • 

Classes             . 

35 

College  Education 

!9 

Cultivation       ...... 

39 

Child,  Mind  of                 ..... 

45 

Crime  and  Education       .... 

56 

Character             ...... 

9 

Conscientiousness               .... 

12 

Cheerfulness         ...... 

11 

Calibre,  Mental         ..... 

H 

Cleanliness              ...... 

17 

Chemistry                 ..... 

22 

Cotlcr                ....... 

17 

Culture                    ..... 

18 

College  Discipline          ..... 

!9 

Conversation                     .... 

29 

Conducting  Recitations         .... 

39 

Criticisms                      ..... 

43 

Charts  for  Reading                  .... 

71 

Charts  for  Penmanship 

210 

v     py-books           ...... 

j  1  1 

Commissioner  of  Education,  Reports  of 

207 

Chewing  and  Smoking          .... 

County  Papers                      .... 

200  87 

Compositions          ...... 

t33 

I  )n                         ....... 

-5 

Democratic  form  of  Covernment 

1" 

!  I     potism                          ..... 

46 

Discipline              ...... 

11 

234 


INDEX. 


"Do  Right,"  the  only  rule  necessary- 

47 

Dismissal      ....... 

52 

Directors           ...... 

28 

Defining                 ..... 

88 

Drawing           ...... 

5o 

Drawing  Maps               .... 

187 

Dictionary,  Unabridged 

.     204-62 

Dickens         ...... 

20 

Dignity              ...... 

180 

Drills,  Oral            ..... 

100 

Deception          ..... 

173 

Diet               ...... 

16 

Digestion 

152 

Division          ...... 

102 

Denominate  Numbers      .        .         : 

105 

Dictation  Exercises 

91 

Difficult  Words         .... 

95 

Direction,  Idea  of          .... 

187 

Dates  in  History 

144 

Disposition,  Cheerful 

11 

Detective,  Teacher  as  a             . 

11 

Draughts                ..... 

6\ 

Delivery            ..... 

76 

Declaration  of  Independence  read  in  Classes 

87 

Decimal  Fractions 

109 

Exercise                     .... 

15 

Eyes       .             .             . 

i53 

Encyclopedias          .... 

62 

Etymology          .... 

205 

Encouragement,  Give  Words  of 

201 

Enthusiasm         .             . 

44 

Enrolling  Names 

38 

Employment                    . 

48 

Expression                 .... 

10-43 

Essays                 ...... 

209 

Experiments              .... 

165 

Economy             .... 

175 

Exhibitions 

64 

INDEX 

Elocution 

Eclectic  Mcth.nl 

Emphasis  in  Reading 

Examination 

Excitation 

Firmness 

Frankness 

Foppishness 

Finger  nails,  Attention  to 

Feuds  Among  Families 

Farmer 

Force  in  School-Room    m 

Force  in  Reading 

Free  School  System 

Furniture 

Failures,  Study  Your  Own 

Flowers 

Fortunes  not  Made  by  Teachin 

First  day  of  School 

First  Reader 

Fourth  Reader 

Fiction 

Foul  Air 

Factoring 

Fractions 

Fruits 

( reography,  Primary 

Ge<  igraphy,  Advanced 

Geology 

( rreek  and  Latin 

Grammar 

( hrades 

General  Kxercises 

( rerman  boy 

Government 

Generosity 

Globes 

Games 


235 

69 

73 
78 

39 
39 
12 
1 1 
25 
25 
20 
29 
8 


62 
202 
204 
211 

38 

75 
80 

20 

108 
109 
10 
186 
*3 

52 

53 

11 

•7  I 

<  2 

16 


236 


INDEX. 


General  Reading 

General  Knowledge 

Grasping  Thought 

Hypocrite 

Hygiene 

History,  U.  S. 

Hobby-riding 

Highest  Reward,  The  Teacher's 

Higher  Mathematics 

Herbarium 

Habits  of  the  Teacher 

Health 

Horseback  Riding 

Honesty 

Honor 

Irregular  attendance 

Instruction 

Institutes,  Teacher's 

Institute,  Smithsonian    . 

Influence  of  the  Teacher     . 

Impression,  Make  a  good 

Illiteracy  in  proportion  to  Expenditure 

Independent  spirit 

Investigation 

Industry 

Impure  language     . 

Inflection  in  Reading 

Interest 

Kindness 

Know  Thyself 

Knowledge,  General 

Labor,  Manual 

Language 

Language  Lessons 

Lying 

Loafing       .... 

Listener,  Teacher  should  be  a  good 

Local  Reporter 


20 

22 

83 
9-200 

J5 
189 

202 

211 

22 

25 

i5 
16 

.  173 
11 

in 

39 
32 

207 

27 

29>  3$ 

53 

4+ 

T74 

1 8a 

78-82 

no 

n 

H 

22 

16 

77 
127 

i73 
20* 

29 

209 


INDEX. 


237 


Library  for  Teachers 
Library  for  Schools 

Location  of  School-houses 

Letters 

Lo\  e  of  the  Work 

Love  for  study,  how  to  incite 

Lectures 

Leaves,  Collection  of 

Leaves,  ( Outline  of 

Latitude  and  Longitude,  How 

Latin  and  Greek 

M  u.ils  and  Manners 

Moral  Qualifications    . 

Mental  Qualifications 

Mental  Arithmetic 

M  iroseness 

Map  Drawing 

Map  I  )rills 

Mischief 

Mind  of  the  Child 

M  ijority,  Voice  of 

Misdirected  funds 

Material  for  School-houses 

Mottoes 

Meddling  spirit 

Magnetic  force 

Manual  labor 

Magazines 

Muscles 

Mathematics 

Multiplication 

M  rcnant's  Bills    . 

Model  Recitations 

Model  Spelling  Lesson 

Models  tor  Parsing 

Mensuration 

Music 

Noise 


taught 


204 

1  1 

44 

I- 
if -i 

161 

119  125 

18 

169 

9 
10 

99 
11 

116 
46 

45 

47 

57 
61 

203 
28 

201 
16 
20 

r5r 
155 

1,0 
1 10 

22 
47-61 


238  INDEX. 

Names,  Write  on  Blackboard  .  .  48 

Newspaper  ....  86-93 

Normal  Schools  ....  19 

Novels  ....  21 

Natural  Science  .  .  .  .  159 

Natural  History  .  .  .  169 

Numeral  Frame  ....  62 

Notation  and  Numeration  .  .  100 

Natural  Tone  in  Reading  .  .  76 

Number,  Idea  of  ggt 

Neatness  .....  25 

Order         .....  12 

Oral  drills        .....  100 

Obstinacy  ....  13 

Organizing      .  .  .  .  .  37 

Optics        .  .  .  .  •  .  153 

Orthography  ....  88 

Odd  Moments       ....  20 

Philoprogenitiveness 11 

Physical  Qualifications 14 

Primary    Geography 186 

Punctuation 68 

Pestalozzi,  Quotation  from 44 

Papers,  Reading  in  school  hours . 49 

Printing  Press 97 

Pastry 16 

Preparation  for  Work 18 

Profession  of  Teaching 31 

Page,  David  P.,  Quotation  from 23 

Personal  Habits 25 

Programme 35 

Penmanship 210 

Punctuality 26 

Politeness 26 

Preliminary  work . . . .  , 34 

Political 31 

Parents 27 

Painting 22 


INDEX.  239 

Plan  of  School-house 

Profanity [8i 

Pictures  in  the  school-room 203 

Physics [65 

Physiology i.|<> 

Propert}  .  Protection  of 178 

Play-grounds 58 

Promptness Vj6 

Purity  of  Speech 180 

Poetic  License 8i 

Poetw  feel 8j 

Pause  in  Reading 83 

Pitch  in  Reading 82 

Processes  before  Rules 103 

Position  in  Reading 76 

Perception  Cultivated 77 

Phonic  method 72 

Pronunciation 93 

Patrons 2  7 

ige  no 

Qua!     cations — Moral 9 

Mental 10 

Physical 14 

Scientific  and   Literary [8 

Questions 40 

Quantity  in  Reading sj 

Quality  in  Reading S2 

Qui  t  school 47 

R   -     risibility 27 

Rhetoric 129 

Recipe  for  Blackboard 

Reports  by  the  <  fovernment 207 

Relation  of  Teacher  to  Parents 27 

Relation  of  Teacher  to  Society 31 

Relation  of  Teacher  to  Profession  ;i 

Religious  creed ;i 

Religious  man    10 

Rest 51 


-240  INDEX. 

Ride  no  Hobbies 202 

Rewards,  Teacher's  Highest 211 

Recreation 16 

Recesses 37 

Reviews 40 

Recitations,  Manner  of  Conducting 39 

Recitations,  Model 183 

Reverence 179 

Respiration        -  -  -  -  -  152 

Reading     -  -  -  -  -  20,  68 

Rate  in  Reading  83 

Radiation  of  Heat  -  66 

Regular  Meals  16 

Rules         -----  47 

Respect  -  -  -  -  -  178 

System       -----  26 

Scientific  and  Literary  Qualifications  -  -  18 

Social  Qualities       -  -  -  -  13 

School-Room  -  203 

School-houses,  Construction  of  -  55 

School-houses,  Location  of  -  -  58 

School-houses,  Plan  of  59 

School-houses,  Surroundings  of  -  -  58 

School-houses,  Size  of  59 

Statistics  _--.--  56 

School  Boards         _  _  -  -  28 

Shrubbery         -  -  -  -  "'59 

Studiousness  -  27 

Society,  Teacher  in  Relation  to  -  -  31 

Sunday  School         -  -  -  -  31 

Submissiveness  53 

Self-government      -  -  -  -  54 

Spirit  of  the  Teacher    -  -  -  -  23 

Spencer,  Herbert,  Quotations  from  -  53 

Stories  -  -  -  -  -       52,  86 

Small  pupils  -  -  -  -  52 

Sympathy  for  pupils     -  201,12 

Slates  -----  49 


im.i:\.  L'll 

Stud] .  Time  for            -            -            -  -             36 

Swearing    -            -            -            -  -                jgj 

Skin,  I  [ealth  of             -            -            -  -             1  - 

Stepping-stone,  Teaching  a            -  -                 24 

-  rap-book              -  ,j 
Spelling            -            -            -            -  _ 
Spelling  Match*         -  0i 

S 

S    tdy  \.>ur  own  Failures    - 

Strangers,  Politeness  to            -            -  -           177 

eecn,  Purity  of    -            -            -  - 

S  ecial  Senses              -            -            -  -          1  -  ^ 

icimens,  Make  Collection  of  -                    [Cg 
Specimens  to  illustrate  Physiology  and  Anatomy      i 5  \ 

-  ress  in  Reading  -            -           -  -               ss 
Slur  to  Reading  88 

S    cond  Reader         -  -- 

S    ives     ------  66-137 

Subtraction   -----  Ic)i 

S   paratrix,  Importance  of  105 

S  mtence  writing       -            -            -  -              1  >\ 

Student's  .Manual             -  206 

Self-reliance  -            -            -            -  -                12 

Teaching  Power            -            -            -  -42 

Teaching,  Unconscious         -            -  -              iqq 

reacher,  Responsibilities  of                   -  -          27 

T  acher,  I  [ealth  of  -            -            -  -                1  j. 

I     icher,  Qua!  ications  of                    -  -            10 

T     icher,  In  Relation  to  patrons      -  -                      2*] 

cher,  In  Relation  to  S  iciety           -  -             *i 

ttion  to  Profession 

Teacher,  Library  of     -            -            -  -          . 
Teacher,  Spirit  of  - 
Teacher,  I  labits  of      - 

Talking  too  much  -            -            -  -                  12 

T<  pics              -----  40 

Topie  list  for  study  of  Geography  -               ]  [8 
iperance     ----- 


242  INDEX. 


Tobacco      - 

i7-25 

Telephone         - 

201 

Tact             - 

28-30 

Taxation  for  schools     - 

56 

Tattling       - 

!73 

Third  Reader  - 

78 

Tables          - 

107 

Technical  Grammar     - 

128 

Todd's  Student's  Manual    - 

206 

Tyrants              - 

13 

Tea              - 

17 

Teeth,  Care  of               - 

25 

Township  Institutes 

33 

Unconscious  Teaching 

199 

Unabridged  Dictionary 

204 

Universities       - 

170 

U.  S.  Money 

106 

Unsuspicious     -             -             -             - 

11 

Vital  processes        - 

i52 

Venable's  poem,  Teacher's  Dream 

212 

Variety  in  the  school-room 

5i 

Vegetables        - 

16 

Veracity      - 

i73 

Ventilation        - 

64 

Visit  parents             - 

28 

Visitors               - 

5i 

Write  Essays 

209 

Write  for  county  papers,  &c. 

209 

Written  contract     - 

30 

Written  Exercise 

68-88-99-127 

Wreaths  as  Decorations 

203 

Webster's  Dictionary 

204 

Worcester's  Dictionary 

205 

Wages         - 

28-30 

Whispering      - 

48 

Woods,  Collection  of 

163 

Wall  Maps        - 

62 

Warming      - 

66 

QfDBX.  243 

Windows  .               6| 

Word  .Method          -  yr 

Writing  Spelling  oo 

\\  ords,  Etymology  of  -            -                205 

Work,  Preliminary  74, 

Webb  Met!           "  -  .           _           _                 7; 

Weights  and  Measures  -                                          107 


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Questions  on  Orthography. 

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Questions  on  Reading. 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Reading. 

Questions  on  Arithmetic. 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Arithmetic. 

Questions  on  Grammar. 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Grammar. 

Questions  on  U.  b.  History. 

Answers  to  Questions  on  U.  S.  History. 

Questions  on  Geography. 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Geography. 

Questions  on  Mathematical  Geography. 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Mathematical  Geography. 

Questions  on  Physical  Geography. 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Physical  Geography. 

Qiestions  on  Physiology. 

Answers  to  Questions  on  Physiology. 

Questions  on  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching. 

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The  work  was  prepared  expressly  for  the  use  of  teachers  in  preparing  for  examinations  J 
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mar knows  the  time  and  labor  required  in  putting  these  forms 
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the  teacher.  Normal  Teachers  will  want  this  little  book  in 
their  schools  at  once  and  all  who  have  had.  or  are  having 
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[l  ought  to  be  in  use  in  every  Grammar  class  in  the  land. 
Why? 

i.  Because  by  it    i  u  can  secure  regularity  and  order  in  tin-  prepar 

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s  t  _\  1  -  •  of  recitation  which  makes  Grammar  "so  dull  and  uninteresting." 

2.   Itculti.  -tematic  habits,  is  a  drill   in   punctuation,  penmanship 

and  neatness,  and  gives  pupils  something  to  do. 

3  The  use  of  written  lessons  gives  great  life  and  interest  to  the  recitation 
through  the  comparisons,  eritii  i-in\  i\< 

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made,  the  pupil  has  his  work  preserved  to  him  m  permanent  form,  for  fu- 
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<;.  Good  teachers  do  not  pretend  to  teach  parsing,  analysis, &c^  in  any 
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bought  at  l*iok  si    I  When  these  points  arc  taken  i:  .deration  nil 

must  favor  the  immediat  I  .'-hook.     Retail  pri 

Samp':  ichers  for  examination,  with   a   view   to   introduction    into 

schools,  ; 

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14  copies  $2.00;  30  copies  $2.25;  25  col  Order  at  once.    Address 

J.  E.  SHERRILL,  Proprietor -Normal  Teacher"  Publishing  House 

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{IN  PRESS.) 
OF    THE 

Common  School   Branches, 

DESIGNED  AS  AN  AID  TO  TEACHERS  AND  PUPILS  IN  THE 
METHOD  OF  TEACHING  AND  STUDYING  BY  TOPICS. 

B2~  G.  DALLAS  LIND. 

Author  of  Methods  of  Teaching  in  Country  Schools, 


PRICE,  S  i.oo. 


A  VALUABLE  BOOK   FOR  TEACHERS   AND  PUPILS. 

Should  be  Introduced  into  Every  School  in  the  Land. 


The  Topic  Method  of  instruction  is  fast  coming  into  general  use.  The 
"old  rote  plan"  is  dying  out.  The  text-book  which  is  made  up  of  questions 
and  answers,  and  the  teacher  who  merely  asks  these  questions  and  expects 
the  pupils  to  answer  them  in  the  language  of  the  book,  are  both  to  be  left 
far  behind  in  this  age  of  progress.  It  is  the  true  province  of  the  teacher  to 
direct  a  id  infuse  life  and  enthusiasm  into  the  recitations,  and  the  province 
of  the  pupil  to  investigate  books  and  nature,  and  be  able  to  give,  in  his  own 
language,  a  full  and  correct  report  of  his  investigations.  The  pupil,  thus, 
during  the  time  of  recitation,  takes  the  place  of  teacher,  and  by  teaching  he 
fixes  what  he  has  learned  by  study. 

This  principle  in  teaching  is  as  old  as  Socrates,  for  it  was  the  plan  he 
pursued.  Jacotot  and  Montaigne,  educatorswho  lived  in  thedays  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  strongly  advocated  this  principle  in  teaching,  and  all  the  promi- 
nent educators  from  that  time  to  the  present  have  practiced  it,  but  strange 
to  say,  the  great  majority  of  teachers  still  pursue  a  dead,  dull  routine  of 
hearing  pupils  recite  answers  which  they  have  committed  to  memory,  or 
spend  the  time  in  lecturing  to  pupils  while  the  latter  merely  listen  and 
praise  the  wonderful  genius  of  the  teacher 

This  little  book  is  designed  to  lift  pupils  and  teachers  out  of  these  ruts 
by  directing  the  studies  of  the  pupils  and  stimulating  them  to  investigation, 
and  pointing  out  to  the  teacher  the  true  plan  of  conducting  a  recitation. 

The  book  contains  an  outline  of  a  lesson  for  each  day  of  a  three  month's 
term  in  each  of  the  following  branches,  viz:  Arithmetic,  Geography, 
Grammar,  United  States  History  and  Physiology,  to  which  is  added  a  list 
of  examples  for  drill  in  the  principles  of  Elocution,  arranged  under  appro- 
priate heads,  and  a  list  of  test  words  in  Spelling,  and  other  miscellaneous 
matter  of  value. 

In  connection  with  the  outlines  are  given  references  to  the  best  text- 
books in  use  and  also  to  many  larger  works  on  the  subjects  and  to  many 
works  of  a  miscellaneous  nature,  which  are  found  in  libraries,  both  public 
and  private.  This  is  one  of  the  valuable  features  of  the  work.  It  will  lead 
the  pupil  out  into  the  living  pastures  of  knowledge  and  stimulate  within 
him  a  desire  to  search  further  for  truth. 

By  the  use  of  this  book  different  members  of  the  class  may  have  differ- 
ent authors.  IVo  need  of  a  uniformity  in  text-books  except  in  Readers.  Cor- 
respondence solicited.  Address 

J.  E.  SHERRILL, 

Danville,  Indiana. 


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